CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT AND
EDUCATION FOR LIVING TOGETHER:
CONCEPTUAL AND MANAGERIAL CHALLENGES IN AFRICA
DÉVELOPPEMENT DU CURRICULUM
ET ÉDUCATION POUR VIVRE ENSEMBLE :
PROBLÈMES DE CONCEPTS ET DE GESTION EN AFRIQUE
FINAL REPORT OF THE SEMINAR HELD IN NAIROBI, KENYA,
25-29 JUNE 2001
RAPPORT FINAL DU SÉMINAIRE, NAIROBI, KENYA
25-29 JUIN 2001
Edited by / rédacteurs : John Aglo and/et Mankolo Lethoko
INTERNATIONAL BUREAU OF EDUCATION
THE KENYA NATIONAL COMMISSION FOR UNESCO
THE UNESCO NAIROBI OFFICE

2

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT AND
EDUCATION FOR LIVING TOGETHER:
CONCEPTUAL AND MANAGERIAL CHALLENGES IN AFRICA
DÉVELOPPEMENT DU CURRICULUM
ET ÉDUCATION POUR VIVRE ENSEMBLE :
PROBLÈMES DE CONCEPTS ET DE GESTION EN AFRIQUE
FINAL REPORT OF THE SEMINAR HELD IN NAIROBI, KENYA,
25–29 JUNE 2001
RAPPORT FINAL DU SÉMINAIRE, NAIROBI, KENYA
25–29 JUIN 2001
Edited by /Rédacteurs : John Aglo and/et Mankolo Lethoko
INTERNATIONAL BUREAU OF EDUCATION
THE KENYA NATIONAL COMMISSION FOR UNESCO
THE UNESCO NAIROBI OFFICE

Contents/Table des matières
PART I: FINAL REPORT/RAPPORT FINAL
Final report, by John Aglo and Mankolo Lethoko, p. 4
PART II: CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT FOR LIVING TOGETHER IN AFRICA/ LE DÉVELOPPEMENT


DES CURRICULA POUR VIVRE ENSEMBLE EN AFRIQUE
Curriculum development for living together in Africa, by Mankolo Lethoko, p. 11
Développement du curriculum pour vivre ensemble en Afrique, par John Aglo, p. 20

PART III: SELECTED ISSUES IN A REGIONAL PERSPECTIVE/PROBLÉMATIQUES SÉLECTIONNÉES




DANS UNE PERSPECTIVE RÉGIONALE

Education and violence: education in emergency situations—the issue of social cohesion, by Audrey Osler, p. 26
Curriculum and languages; teaching in African languages and learning strategies, by Jens Naumann, p. 32
Post-conflict situations: some useful perspectives from Africa, by Mudiappasa Devadoss, p. 38
PART IV: NATIONAL REPORTS/RAPPORTS NATION AUX



1. Burundi, p. 43
2. Comores, p. 44
3. République démocratique du Congo, p. 47
4. Eritrea, by Tefsamicael Gerahtu, p. 48
5. Ethiopia, by Dereje Terefe Gemechu, p. 49
6. Kenya, by J. Kiptoon, p. 50
7. Mauritius, by Hirinand Dansingani, p. 52
8. Nigeria, by Ebele Maduewesi, p. 53
9. Rwanda p. 54
10. Seychelles, by Marie-Therese Purvis, p. 56
11. Somalia, by Mohamed Abdulkadir Nur, p. 57
ANNEXES
I. List of participants/Liste des participants, p. 59
II. Guidelines for the preparation of contributions, p. 62
©2003. International Bureau of Education, P.O. Box 199, 1211 Geneva 20, Switzerland. www.ibe.unesco.org

PART I:
FINAL REPORT
PARTIE I :
RAPPORT FINAL

Final report
John Aglo and Mankolo Lethoko
I. INTRODUCTION
IV. PROGRAMME
The seminar devoted to Curriculum development and
1. Keynote address
education for living together: conceptual and managerial
challenges in Africa (Nairobi, 25-29 June 2001) was
The keynote address, delivered by the Director of the
o rganized jointly by the International Bureau of
IBE, Cecilia Braslavsky, was devoted to the central issue
Education (UNESCO/IBE) with the assistance of the
of concerns about how social cohesion and liv i n g
Ke nya National Commission for UNESCO and the
together can be placed in the rationales for schooling in
UNESCO Nairobi Office. The IBE’s policy dialogue and
the twenty-first century, and the link between such
capacity building efforts in the area of curriculum
concerns and the sixth follow-up goal adopted by the
development are largely based on a cycle of regional and
World Education Forum held in Dakar, Senegal, in April
international seminars and workshops. The underlying
2000 devoted to improving the quality of education.1 It
premise of these efforts in support of the adaptation and
was also emphasized that the deliberations of this
renewal of school curricula is that the integration of
Nairobi seminar would feed directly into preparations of
r egional and global perspectives in processes of
the policy dialogue sessions organized at the
curriculum policy formulation, implementation and
International Conference on Education to be held in
management is central to promoting education that
Geneva, Switzerland, on 5-8 September 2001.
contributes to living together and that enhances social
cohesion.
2. Country presentations
II. OBJECTIVES
Representatives from the eleven participating countries
presented their national situations on the basis of the

To analyse existing official school curricula from the
guidelines provided (see Annex III). The cross-cutting
vantage point of their potential contribution to learning
issues that emerged from the presentations of Burundi,
to live together and to social cohesion.
Comoros, the Democratic Republic of the Congo,

To formulate recommendations for the improvement
Eritrea, Ethiopia, Mauritius, Nigeria, Rwanda and the
of the dialogue and exchange that would place on the
Seychelles are as follows
occasion of the forty-sixth session of the
(a) Living together and language policies: In raising the
International Conference on Education (Geneva, 5-8
central issue of the nature of educational goals that
September 2001);
would ensure education for living together, a funda-

To address the issue of curriculum management with
mental question was that of the tension between lan-
a view to improving the capacity of basic schooling
guage policies based on concerns for national unity
to contribute to enhanced social cohesion.
and nation-building, as opposed to the promotion of
respect for cultural diversity through the use of
III. PARTICIPANTS
minority languages as media of instruction.
(b) R e d e fining curriculum content: The issue of
Some forty participants from Burundi, Comoros, the
r e d e fining the selection and organization of
Democratic Republic of the Congo, Eritrea, Ethiopia,
curriculum content must be addressed in such a way
Kenya, Mauritius, Nigeria, Rwanda, the Seychelles and
as to avoid ex c e s s ive pressure on already
Somalia took part in the seminar. Kenyan participants
overloaded—and
often
ex a m i n a t i o n - d r ive n —
included officials from the Ministry of Education, the
curricula.
Kenya Institute of Education, and university-based acad-
(c) Learning and teaching appro a ch e s. Curricular
emics. In addition to representatives from the IBE,
r e n ewal is more than just rev i ewing curricula
UNESCO-PEER and UNESCO’s Bangkok Office, inter-
contents and requires a rethinking of pedagogical
national experts from Argentina, Bolivia, Germany and
approaches to teaching and learning.
the United Kingdom also participated.
(d) Building up the capacity of teachers to ensure that
t h ey are equipped to deliver the curriculum
effectively.
(e) D e c e n t ralization or deconcentra t i o n: The central
issue of debate was to determine the extent to which
decentralization can be effective in the absence of
6

sufficient school autonomy that might facilitate the

The need for capacity building to manage both cross-
promotion of learning to live together.
cutting and specific issues.
(f) Curricular policy formulation : The central issue here
was that of resistance resulting from curricular
4. Kenyan Day
p o l i cy decisions that are too often taken by
professional bodies with little or no consultation with
Several representatives from various sections of the
r e p r e s e n t a t ives
of
civil
society
and
local
Kenyan education system presented issues related to
communities.
access and equity with a particular focus on curricular
A number of context-specific issues were also identified:
issues related to the relevance and quality of learning in

R wanda is currently invo l ved in the ove r a l l
relation to socio-economic, financial, cultural and
reorganization of its education system in order to
political parameters. The following needs were
address the issue of the return of refugees and
identified:
displaced children who had been exposed to different

The adaptation of a centrally developed curriculum to
systems of education in their host countries
varying regional situations.
(including a different medium of instruction).

The greater empowerment of communities for the

The multiple challenges of educational provision in
provision of education in general, and for early
conflict-affected contexts and emergency situations:
childhood education in particular.
Somalia (where UNESCO-PEER is active); the

Greater integration of non-formal education
Democratic Republic of the Congo and Burundi.
programmes in the formal education system so as to

For the Comoros and Nigeria, measures are being
allow for a more efficient flow of students from one
examined to promote bridges between the Koranic
system to the other.
and official schools in order to integrate the two

Redefining education in such a way as to enrich and
models within a national education system.
not to undermine the curriculum.

Both Ethiopia and Eritrea have opted for multilingual

Further research on the issue of first and second
approaches in recognition of the benefits of literacy
languages as media of instruction at the level of
acquisition through the mother-tongue.
primary education, as well as the sensitive issue of

In one country at least—the Seychelles—education
when to make the transition from the mother-tongue
for living together has been institutionalized for quite
to a second language. Existing research findings
some time now.
suggest that a learner needs no less than six years of

Mauritius has a free and full coverage at primary
learning in his or her mother-tongue before switching
education level and enjoys democratic and economic
to the second language.
s t a b i l i t y. Pa r a d o x i c a l l y, due to the bottleneck

Strengthening of the role of the inspection mecha-
situation occurring at the transition to secondary
nisms in quality assurance and a focus on school-
education and the emphasis on end-of-primary cycle
based assessment by the teachers themselves.
examinations, there are high drop-out and repeater

Strengthening links between universities and
rates.
curriculum agencies with regard to curriculum
development.
3. Issues requiring further exploration
Although not fully discussed, the following were
5. Round-tables
identified as being issues that require further attention:

The devastating impact of HIV/AIDS on education in
Round-table I: Curriculum and language: teachings in
Sub-Saharan Africa.
African language and learning strategies.

The need to relate emergency programmes to educa-
Moderator: J. Naumann (Germany).
tional planning and programmes taking place in con-
Language issues were presented against a backdrop of
texts of ‘normalcy’.
research findings resulting from a number of studies

The rehabilitation of the ‘lost generations’ resulting
undertaken by the Southern African Consortium for
from disrupted educational processes in emergen-
Monitoring Educational Quality (SACMEQ), the Institut
c i e s — h ow can host countries allow refugees to
national d’études et d’action pour le développement de
develop curricula based on their home countries in
l’éducation (INEADE), as well as by the Programme
preparation for integration in their societies after the
d’analyse des systèmes d’éducation de la CONFEMEN2
emergencies are over?
(PASEC). It was highlighted that the link between first-

Multicultural or inter-cultural education? Value sys-
language status of pupils and learning achievement has
tems and their integration in education.
not as yet been fully explored in Africa. Two strategies

The wide range of situations in the utilization of both
were proposed in view of bridging structural language
traditional and new technologies as pedagogical sup-
gaps in the learning process.
port for the promotion of social cohesion.

Developing dictionaries in the first language or the

The uneven importance given to science education
most widely used national languages so as to cover
across the participating countries.
larger lexicons.
7


The provision of support materials to supplement
and the curriculum content on which they are based. It
school textbooks in use, particularly since these are
was felt that there is a pressing need for institutions and
most often printed in foreign languages. The ultimate
i n d ividuals to promote equity: the preservation of
premise expounded was that the assimilation of
humanity’s heritage implies promoting a broad-based
foreign languages is facilitated through a proper mas-
curriculum with a global outlook. If peace education is to
tery of the mother-tongue/widely used languages.
counteract a culture of violence, it is necessary to
There exists a tension between the general consensus
promote not only education on human rights, but also
among specialists around the fact that local languages
human rights in education. The following pressing issues
are the most appropriate vehicles for the acquisition of
were identified:
concepts, on the one hand, and public opinion in favour

The need for more pro-active research-based
of early learning of foreign languages as an important
strategies on crisis prevention, rather than reactive
component of upward mobility, on the other.
measures to counter situations of violence and
Consequently, there is a need to consider language issues
emergencies. It is therefore crucial, while dealing
both in terms of their role in facilitating such mobility, as
with the immediate manifestations of violence, that
well as tools for the betterment of all—which is the
social issues that are the source of symbolic and
ultimate goal of education. Moreover, local languages
structural violence be properly addressed. This poses
are often perceived as being insufficiently developed as
important political and ideological challenges both at
vehicles for the transmission of modern scientific and
the national and international levels.
technological concepts. Finally, although each language

The world community should place appropriate
has its own paradigm, the adoption of a single (often
emphasis on education for peace.
foreign) national language is dictated more by

A curriculum should be adopted that: (i) enables
ideological and political concerns for nation building,
students to face and overcome conflicts, by focusing
rather than by educational and psychological concerns.
on the need to revive historical studies to analyse
Given the recognized importance of enriching analytical
such situations of conflict to get to their root causes
and communication skills through the learning of
(social, structural, economic) and to deve l o p
several languages, it was recommended that insight
l e a r n e r s ’
n egotiation
skills;
(ii)
promotes
might be gained by examining language paradigms in
mutual respect through the teaching of humanistic
multi-lingual and multi-cultural countries, such as the
‘universal’ values stemming from African cultural
United Republic of Tanzania, that do not use English as
traditions; (iii) caters for the ‘lost generations’ that
a first language.
suffered from educational disruption and destruction
during emergencies; and (iv) facilitates the fa s t
Round-table II: Education and violence: education in
tracking of traumatized individuals and groups back
emergency situations: the problem of social cohesion.
into the system, thus overcoming social trauma.
Moderator: M. Devadoss (UNESCO/PEER) and A. Osler
Ultimately, the idea of multiple forms of ‘violence’ has
(United Kingdom).
to be seen as an important conceptual reference in
curriculum development. This broad and multifaceted
The initial overview of the theme of education and con-
concept would embrace not simply violence related to
flict raised the following issues:
situations of armed conflict, but also structural and

Education has a role to play in conflict-affected
symbolic violence as experienced in the family, the
societies in ensuring dialogue, contributing to
community, the school and the media. Violence that
reconciliation and social healing, as well as to the
results from social frustrations, in particular, implies a
possibility of conflict resolution.
need to re-examine the assumptions on which curricula

There is a fundamental need to identify the type of
are developed and learning experiences in schools are
education that will win back and provide a solid
organized.
foundation for the lost generation that has suffered
from a period of violence.
Round-table III: Curriculum and cultural diversity:

What is the role of education in the repatriation of
education and shared values. Moderator: Luiz. E. López
displaced and refugee populations, and the
(Bolivia).
reintegration of former combatants?

What is the role of education in reconstruction
New curricular challenges for school education:
programmes and the need for educational transfor-

The re-examination of such values as tolerance, plu-
mation in rebuilding social fabric?
ralism, mutual respect, as well as multilingualism and
The second presentation was devoted to the issue of
democracy.
institutionalized violence, particularly in the context of

The development of such competencies as cognitive
schools. Such violence takes the form of exclusion from
f l ex i b i l i t y, development of self-esteem and
school and discrimination on the grounds of gender,
self-respect, cultural relativism within the framework
religion, race and ethnicity. School violence also
of human rights and openness towards the unknown.
includes the legitimate use of corporal punishment, the

The need to foster international understanding and
symbolic violence inherent to many learning processes
peace, as well as to train students in conflict
8

resolution and negotiation. Hence, there is a need to
Round-table V: Curriculum, science teaching and
develop language competencies for cultural diversity
interdisciplinary. Moderator: H. Labate (Argentina)
and linguistic pluralism.
Unlike long-standing mono-cultural approaches, there is
The discussion centred on the need to link the teaching
an emerging concern for the promotion of inter-cultural
of science to the social and ethical values of individual
approaches to education, rooted simultaneously in ones’
societies. Cross-curricular approaches were discussed as
own culture and open to international and global
a means of reducing content overload, schedule
realities. In order to counter the apprehension related to
fragmentation and low perceived relevance of science as
curriculum overload in promoting respect for cultural
a subject in schools. This was followed by an
diversity, it was felt that the focus should not be on
examination of the implications of such cross-curricular
content but rather towards an attitudinal shift. Likewise,
approaches on teacher training, co-ordination and team-
proper teacher education would see to it that teachers
work among teaching staff, and the design and pilot
cope expertly with the promotion of attitudes related to
testing of teaching materials and a revised curriculum.
respect for cultural diversity in the curriculum. Proper
The following specific issues were examined:
promotion of respect for cultural diversity in education

How can the teaching of science be related to values
would require a redefinition of education and of the
when the very focus of science seems to be in
concept
of
nation-State
based
on
pluralism,
contradiction with some ‘traditional’ beliefs and
multilingualism and multiculturalism. It was felt that
values, particularly in some African social contexts?
mono-cultural, monolingual attitudes in formal

How can cross-curricular approaches be effectively
education and schooling are a particular legacy of the
handled without teachers tending to focus on their
d eveloped world transplanted to the Southern
own area of specialization?
hemisphere where multiculturalism and multilingualism

Do cross-curricular approaches just mean linking
had been the norm. While the term of ‘living together’is
individual subjects or the meshing of content from
a recent product of international educational discourse,
different subjects in dealing with a problem?
participants felt that the implications of the concept have

How do we train/prepare teachers so that they can
long been part of African social realities.
promote interdisciplinary approaches in the teaching
of science?
Round-table IV: Curriculum and the HIV/AIDS

How do we promote specialization at the higher
pandemic. Moderator: Lucille C. Gregorio (UNESCO/
levels—especially at universities if this mode of
PROAP).
teaching has to be adopted?

Interdisciplinarity is a form of broad-based
curriculum (integration). Is there not a danger of
The moderator began by quoting Dr. Piot’s words, which
s u p e r ficial coverage of content—especially give n
emphasized that, in order to match the scale of the
limited instructional time?
pandemic, the time has come for action and outcomes
and not ‘fine words’. The presentation touched upon two
There was a general consensus to the effect that:
aspects:

There is need to approach science teaching

An overview of the critical situation in the Asia-
differently, avoiding ‘old’solutions.
Pacific region.

It is easy to promote interdisciplinarity at the lower

HIV/AIDS prevention through quality improvement
primary level, while it is fairly difficult at the upper
and innovation of curriculum content and
levels.
teaching/learning material.

Who determines the content in science?

Teachers need to put themselves in the place of the
Representatives from a number of participating countries
learners in order to adapt content appropriately.
indicated preventive actions being taken at national

There is need for teachers to state connections
levels to counteract the impact of the pandemic and to
between
subjects
in
order
to
promote
m ove away from mere know l e d g e - d i s s e m i n a t i o n
interdisciplinarity.
approaches to a focus on the development of coping
strategies. An attitudinal shift is a sine qua non condition
for reducing risk behaviour, and the real challenge lies in
6. Recommendations for the International Conference
designing and developing appropriate teaching and
on Education (Geneva, September 2001)
learning materials for efficacious behavioural change. It
was unanimously felt that collaborative efforts are
During the last session of the seminar, participants were
necessary to ensure that the preventive programmes are
p r ovided with an opportunity to contribute to the
more holistic in nature and do not overload existing
elaboration of possible questions to be put to Ministers
school curricula. It was nevertheless noted that cultural
of Education during the six working sessions that were to
pressures in a number of African societies are
be organized at the International Conference on
detrimental to a full-fledged intervention programme.
Education (Geneva, 5-8 September 2001). The questions
were organized around the following topics: the teaching
of science, education, violence and social cohesion, lan-
guage issues and the promotion of shared values.
9

Group I: The teaching of science
language policies (i.e. initial literacy in the mother
tongues/local language(s) of the learners; using the
1. What is being done to implement the formulation of
approach of foreign-language teaching for African
science and technology in national deve l o p m e n t
learners with regard to official European language)?
plans and to promote relevant interest and enhanced
2. What strategies and plans are being put into place or
performance of science in each country?
are being envisaged for the near future in order to
2. What is being done to enhance the participation of
strengthen the use of important local languages in
girls in science and technology activities?
basic education and in public life in general?
3. What action may be taken to enhance public support
3. What type of co-operative regional efforts are being
for science education in each country?
e nvisaged to pool different national human and
4. What is being done to ensure that science curricula
material resources to enhance the use of local
include environmental protection and management?
languages shared by neighbouring countries, in
5. What is the goal of science education in each national
primary education, adult literacy and public life in
context? What variations may be observed?
general?
6. What is being done to enrich scientific knowledge
with traditional knowledge?
Group IV: Shared values
7. What policies are being implemented to enhance
teacher competencies and flexibility in the teaching
1. How can education systems strengthen the role of the
of science?
school, the family and the community in the
development of shared values within the framework
Group II: Education, violence and social cohesion
of the universally agreed principles of human rights?
2. In view of all the efforts taking place concerning
Democratic schools
regionalization and globalization, how is it possible
1. What measures will governments take to promote the
to work together with a view to harmonizing the
democratic participation of teachers and children in
curriculum so as to enhance the move towa r d s
decision-making (and so prevent frustration and
achieving education for living together?
violence)?
3. How can we ensure that school curricula integrate
issues of cultural diversity?
Curriculum and examinations
4. Is it desirable to integrate the teaching of values in all
2. What policies and practices will be put in place to
disciplines covered by the school curriculum?
promote peace and children’s rights and to combat
5. H ow can mutual exchange between curriculum
ethnic conflict?
d evelopers
from
countries
with
similar
3. Competitive examinations are often a form of
characteristics be promoted?
violence.
What
alternative
measures
will
6. What measures can be taken to minimize the
governments take to prevent this violence against
politicization of education?
children?
Some participants felt that there were some issues which
Training
were missing in the questions addressed to the ministers,
4. Schools need alternative disciplinary measures other
for instance, the question of integrative approaches in the
than corporal punishment. What measures will the
teaching of science, lack of intensive and objective-based
ministers take to give training to teachers in positive,
research before and after new policies are implemented,
non-violent, disciplinary strategies?
s u b - r egional, regional and international co-operation
between countries, especially in Africa. Another promi-
Sexual harassment as violence
nent issue raised dealt with the role of NGOs and teach-
5. What measures will governments take to prevent the
ers’ unions in curriculum development and implementa-
s exual harassment of children and vulnerable
tion.
teachers? In particular, will they ensure that measures
7. Exchanging experiences and building capacity in
are taken to keep pregnant girls in school, so that they
curriculum development
do not suffer the further violence of expulsion?
This final session aimed at identifying needs in the area
Truancy
of curriculum development
and recommended
6. Truancy often results from violence (bullying by
methodologies for training and networking with a view
peers, harsh treatment by teachers). What measures
to strengthening national and regional capacities. On the
are to be taken to combat truancy?
subject of needs, the following were identified:

Language issues: development of curriculum,
Group III: Language issues
materials and books in mother-tongues and local
languages; assessment and evaluation.
1. What measures are being proposed to enhance chil-

New information technologies and access to current
dren’s learning through the drafting of appropriate
information on curriculum design and development.
10


Micro-planning skills and participatory curriculum
5. The promotion of equity through the curricula to
planning skills.
forestall the emergence of situations likely to

Negotiation and ways to harmonize the curriculum
engender violence.
planning process with available resources and
6. The elaboration of curricula that equally promote
negotiation skills for budgetary allocations.
proper attitudes and behaviours.

Expertise in systematic curriculum development and
7. The prioritization of suitable training of trainers and
techniques for keeping the curriculum flex i b l e ,
teacher programmes that may be adapted to the
allowing for quick changes as a result of monitoring.
multidimensional changes in education.

A d vo c a cy
and
management
skills
for
8. Encouraging research in the field of education for
implementation.
solutions that are relevant to the specific needs and

Mobilization and participation skills for involving
environments of African States.
communities in school life.
9. The institutionalization of a national policy on lan-

Pilot testing strategies.
guages specific to each nation.

Content selection, screening and updating to avoid
10. The systematic reinforcement of measures against the
curriculum overload.
spread of HIV/AIDS.

Monitoring and evaluation of quality assurance and
research capacity.
VI. DISCLAIMER

Access to information to be able to compare
curricula from other areas and countries.
The choice and presentation of the facts contained in this

Skills in the use of modern information and
publication and the opinions expressed therein are not
communication technology.
necessarily those of UNESCO-IBE and do not commit

Skills for fund-raising and public relations.
the Organization. The designations employed and the
presentation of the material throughout this publication
V. RECOMMENDATIONS
do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever
on the part of UNESCO-IBE concerning the legal status
1. The setting up of a Pan-African Institute for
of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities,
curriculum designers and developers.
or the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
2. The promotion of exchange programmes related to
curricular know-how at regional and inter-regional
Notes
levels.
1. See: http://www. u n e s c o . o rg / e d u c a t i o n / e fa / e d _ f o r _ a l l / d a k-
3. The review of existing pedagogical approaches so as
fram_eng.shtml
to integrate the values pertaining to living together.
2. La Conférence des ministres de l’éducation des pays ayant
4. The protection of children from all forms of violence
en commun l’usage du français.
(whether institutional or implicit).
11

PART II:
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
FOR LIVING TOGETHER
IN AFRICA
PARTIE II :
LE DÉVELOPPEMENT
DES CURRICULA
POUR VIVRE ENSEMBLE
EN AFRIQUE

Curriculum development
for living together in Africa
Mankolo Lethoko
I. INTRODUCTION
Africa is striking in two respects: its high level of
absolute poverty, which is around 46% according to the
The new millennium has given a new urgency to efforts
United Nations Development Programme (2001, p. 12);
by governments to provide all citizens with access to
and the recent decline in primary enrolment rates across
quality education—at least for the basic level. The
the region to their lowest point in fifteen years
meaning and role of education, of teaching and learning,
(UNESCO-BREDA, 1995, p. 1). Nonetheless, despite
are being constantly redefined in an effort to meet the
Africa’s declining economic ability, its multitude of
real needs and demands of individual societies and those
political and social problems, and the wide ‘knowledge
of the international community. Furthermore, the
gap’ (i.e. its relative lack of access to modern scientific
implications for societies of globalization and


























and technical knowledge and information), a number of
communications technology are at the heart of present
countries are engaged in curricular reforms of different
concerns to improve and upgrade education systems. The
kinds designed to address specific situations.
globalization of economies and societies at all levels has
F i n a l l y, one of the lessons learned from the
raised a new challenge, requiring the adaptation of
experiences of many African countries rega r d i n g
educational content to meet both personal and the
curriculum development and implementation is that to
national demands in individual countries, as well as in
better contribute to education for ‘living together’
the international arena.
(Delors et al., 1996, p. 97), it is necessary to improve
Africa, like all the other parts of the world, is engaged
approaches to curriculum reform so as to accommodate
in educational reforms that will enable it to participate
the issues of language, science, cultural diversity, social
fully in the international milieu. However, in many
cohesion, violence in school and HIV/AIDS prevention.
African countries the education systems are in a state of
With this in mind, experts from Bolivia, Argentina, the
disarray (Nwomonoh, 1998, p. xii). This is illustrated
United Kingdom, Thailand and Germany presented
by the country reports presented during the seminar
papers focusing on these issues at the seminar. Some of
devoted to Curriculum development and education
these issues or themes were also discussed in detail
for living together: conceptual and managerial

during the subsequent forty-sixth session of the
challenges in Africa (Nairobi, 25-29 June 2001)—most
International Conference on Education (ICE), organized
of the countries had numerous problems arising from
by the International Bureau of Education (Geneva, 5-8
various internal and external factors. The reports from
September 2001).
eleven of the Sub-Saharan countries presented at
In the light of the situation in the countries
the conference highlighted Obanya’s point (1999, p. 14)
participating in the seminar, the next sections will
that in Africa education has been a product (if not a vic-
discuss the following themes: (i) curriculum and
tim) of historical (i.e. colonization), social, political and
languages; (ii) curriculum and cultural diversity; (iii)
economic forces that have determined its successes or
education for living together; (iv) curriculum, science
failures in the continent over the years. There are also
teaching and interdisciplinarity; and (v) education in
both internal and external dimensions of Africa’s educa-
emergency situations. Examples and illustrations will be
tional dilemma, i.e. over dependence on external donor
drawn from country presentations in order to highlight
funding, as in Somalia; rapid population growth, which
the importance of such issues in curriculum development
is one reason that has led to insufficient resources in
and reform.
some countries, such as Nigeria; political instability,
leading to internal conflicts in countries such as Burundi,
II. CURRICULUM AND LANGUAGES
while the Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia,
Somalia and Rwanda are trying to recover from wars that
Language in education embraces the wider question of
have ra vaged their countries for years. The last and the
the languages taught and learned in school, and the
most important dilemma, which the United Nation’s
languages used as media of instruction at various levels
Secretary-General refers to as ‘the most formida-
of the education system in each country. The choice of
ble development of our time’ (UNESCO, 2001, p. 4) is
languages used in education in Africa has been influ-
the impact of HIV/AIDS on education. The African
enced by a number of factors: the historical experience of
D evelopment Forum, UNAIDS and the Economic
colonialism; political evolution after independence; the
Commission of Africa (2000) have shown that more than
socio-linguistic contours of each country; and the
50% of HIV-infected people and AIDS sufferers
strength of linguistic and educational lobbies in various
globally can be found in Africa. Furthermore, in com-
countries (Obanya, 1999, p. 425). For instance, the case
parison to all the other world regions, Sub-Saharan
of Seychelles was the most intriguing since it has a
13

tri-lingual policy, that is, the use of French, Creole and
some countries. Most societies view language as an
English in education. While Mauritius, with Rwanda
important cultural tool that gives people a sense of both
planning to follow suit, has a bilingual policy of both
national and cultural identity, but it can also be a source
English and French in its schools. Other countries, such
of disunity and weaken national identity. During the
as Burundi and the Comoros, use French, while Kenya,
seminar, many countries outlined their language policies
Eritrea and Ethiopia use English. However, it has been
in education, and reported a sense of competition or
suggested that there are three basic orientations about
tension between the use of local languages and the
language functioning that are at the root of language
official ‘European’ languages. As already mentioned,
policy (Nwomonoh, 1998, p. 305): language as a right,
eight of the nine local languages in Eritrea are used as a
language as a problem and language as a resource.
medium of instruction, although only three of them have
a script of their own. In Rwanda the country is faced with
1. Language as a right
a problem of refugees who have been exposed to either
French or English education systems in asylum
Language as a human right may be derived from, and
countries. Both English and French must be
underpinned by, personal, legal and constitutional rights.
incorporated into its education system in order to
In many of the world’s countries, language as a right is
accommodate both groups upon their return. In Ethiopia
enshrined in the constitution, so that, where possible, all
there is apprehension and dissatisfaction that the use of
languages are equally recognized in all spheres of life. In
local languages as media of instruction in schools will
a ny case, as has been discussed earlier, diff e r e n t
limit learners’ chances of success on the international
countries are faced with various linguistic and/or techni -
scene. Nigeria has more than 400 languages, but only
cal obstacles that lead to a wider use of one local
three of them are used as a medium of instruction in the
language more than others. For example, Somalia would
early stages of primary education. Likewise, Kiswahili is
like to use the Somali language, but they are obliged to
the only officially recognized language in Kenya out of
the use of Arabic since the Somali language is basically
almost fifty languages.
oral—it is not yet written down. In Eritrea it is believed
According to Naumann (2001, p. 3), ever since the
that ensuring the rights of every individual and of every
b eginning of internationally comparable empirical
ethnic group in the country depends on the maintenance
surveys on school achievement and proficiency, pupils
of their mother-tongue, and that minority languages need
from developing countries have always scored much
to be recognized to involve all ethnic groups in nation-
l ower than the average level of their peers in
building. But they have only managed to use eight
industrialized, Western countries. The main reason for
languages because of a shortage of teachers in the ninth
this gap appears to be the fact that in the Northern indus-
language, a lack of teaching materials, etc. Thus, in some
trialized countries, the language of instruction at school
situations it is virtually impossible for a particular local
is largely the same as the language spoken at home by a
language to be used as a medium of instruction in
most pupils. Although most participants agreed that they
education.
would appreciate highly the use of their local languages
Furthermore, during the last thirty to forty years,
as media of instruction, numerous linguistic problems
important strides have been realized to ove r c o m e
are evident in many of them. In Kenya, publishers are not
traditional Eurocentric and colonialist premises on
that keen to publish a lot of material in some minority
language policies, especially language teaching and
languages because of a limited market. In Rwanda, they
learning in formal and informal education (Naumann,
want to use both English and French, but there is a
2001). For example: schoolbooks have been Africanized
shortage of bilingual teachers and the financial crisis
in contents and presentation; a fair number of teaching
makes it virtually impossible to use both languages for
materials have been developed for adult literacy in
teaching. In Eritrea there is a shortage of teachers in the
African languages; it is no longer common practice to
eight local languages used in early primary education,
punish pupils who speak African languages during
and some of these languages have little or no literary
breaks in the schoolyard; and it is accepted in some
stocks, such as dictionaries, glossaries and other books.
countries for students to ask questions using African
In conclusion, language is an important cultural tool
languages and the teacher can use the same language in
that can give people a sense of identity, but it can also be
order to explain some difficult concepts to the pupils.
a divisive factor, especially if each ethnic group demands
However, a lot still has to be done in terms of striking a
that its own language be equally recognized in all sectors
balance between psycho- and socio-linguistic needs so as
of community life. Nonetheless, it is believed that
to take account of the large number of African languages
proficiency in many languages, even if it is not one’s
spoken at home and the use of European language(s) that
mother-tongue, can help the majority of learners and
are usually used only as a medium of instruction in
teachers to better master the challenges of foreign
schools.
‘European’languages used at school.
2. Language as a problem
3. Language as a resource
Public debate about language policy often examines the
Favoured languages are usually those granting
issue of language as a problem—a source of conflict in
international, economic or political gain. In Ethiopia, for
14

instance, parents were not happy with the linguistic
‘uniformity in cultural and ethnic diversity in whose
policy that advocates the use of local languages at
language?’The participants came to a conclusion that to
primary school. T h ey would have preferred their
better transmit culture and values to one’s children, the
children to be taught in English from the outset so as to
use of the first language of the children is ideal.
give them more opportunities to master the language at
However, it can be seen in the African situation that it is
an early age. Elsewhere, commitment by political leaders
impossible for the time being.
from strong ethnic groups has led to the adoption and
d evelopment of zonal or regional languages in
1. The challenges for education
multilingual countries, such as Nigeria. The tendency
inherent in this orientation has been to value the
Education, like all the other spheres of life, faces a real
acquisition of foreign languages, such as English and
challenge in the new context in which the world’s
French, as official languages and media of instruction
accelerating mobility and intercommunication mean that
from the higher grades of primary education. It can be
we are brought into contact with ethnic, cultural and
seen that although the continent wants to have a unifying
linguistic dive r s i t y. One response related to this
or international African language, it remains a
increased diversity witnessed across the globe has been a
fa r-fetched dream because many countries are still
focus on areas that are commonly referred to as
struggling to promote their own local languages. Thus,
intercultural,
multicultural,
cross-cultural
or
the use of foreign languages in education and other
international education (Cushner, 1998, p. 2). Hence, to
spheres of life will remain in practice for decades to
prepare us for living together, education for the twenty-
come.
first century is expected to:

Teach us to accept that cultural and linguistic
III. CURRICULUM AND CULTURAL DIVERSITY
heterogeneity is a fact of life and an inherent human
characteristic;
Learning to live together in today’s increasingly

Facilitate the acquisition of various social
globalized world requires competencies and values that
competencies that will lead all of us to recognize,
will equip us all to live in extremely diverse cultural and
respect and value diversity;
linguistic contexts. As López (2001a, p. 2) puts it:

Teach us that human beings are diverse by nature,
and are carriers of specific and different cultures;
such diversity is not only characteristic of societies that we

Teach us competencies enabling us to understand
formerly considered to be distant, but is rather part of our
otherness and the need to highlight how necessary it
very own co-existence, since otherness and difference now
impregnate our homes due to the increasing predominance
is to recognize a minimum set of values shared by
of new information technologies that constantly bring us
everyone;
into contact with worlds with different cultures and

Teach us to accept others’ points of view, cultural
languages, and also due to the increasing population shifts
practices and beliefs, human rights, equity and
of individuals from regions and countries from their own.
equality in an increasingly democratic life (López,
2001a).
This implies that learning to live together in the twenty-
It is obvious from these expectations that education is
first century should then start by recognizing these new
beginning to be viewed as a panacea for the problems
situations and accepting our creative diversity. In the
and misunderstanding regarding cultural dive r s i t y
educational context, teaching and learning have always
occurring in modern societies. Nonetheless, the rhetoric
been cultural processes that take place within particular
in all of these expectations is that some countries have
contexts, to the extent that they reflect the experience,
such problems that, while these expectations may seem
perspectives, orientations and contributions of a wide
very rational, logical and of the utmost significance, the
variety of ethnic and cultural groups (Häkkinen, 1998, p.
schools will be unable to handle such complex issues.
9). In other words, students learn more and more easily
Given the fact that half of the countries participating in
when academic knowledge and skills they are expected
this seminar had been previously involved in a serious
to learn are filtered through their own experiential and
armed conflict (Eritrea, Somalia, Democratic Republic
cultural frames of reference.
of Congo and Rwanda) or the war was still continuing, as
As was echoed and reiterated during the seminar,
in Burundi, it was highly imperative that children at a
language is an important tool that gives people a sense of
very young age were exposed to the kind of education
identity and nationality. It has been mentioned that all
that inculcated the above expectations, so that this type
countries participating in the seminar used English,
of education can ‘influence the future by preparing the
French or both from the fourth grade of primary
minds of young people to include a diversity of
education upwards. This could imply that, as much as
viewpoints, behaviours and values’(Cushner, 1998, p. 2).
countries like Eritrea want their curriculum to be a pillar
These are good intentions, but can the African countries
of national unity based on uniformity in cultural and
afford to incorporate these concepts in their cur-
ethnic diversity, they will still be obliged to use English
ricula? Do teachers have the relevant training? And can
as a medium of instruction from grade four upwards and
the school timetable allow renewed approaches to
this tends to defy their philosophy of using language as
accommodate these issues?
one of the unifying factors. So the question is:
15

subject. Instead, these recommendations can be
2. Can countries, national systems and schools cope?
incorporated into the teachers’ daily work (López,
2001b). They include:
Many problems from different countries have been out-

Curriculum design and implementation has to take
lined above. However, specific problems that relate to
into account the reality in which education and
this topic will be briefly discussed here. In Eritrea, after
learning take place.
thirty years of war, the Ministry of Education is trying to

Education in multilingual and multicultural settings
build an education system based on cultural and ethnic
must take into account the social and cultural context.
diversity through the use of eight local languages as

The school has to provide children with meaningful
media of instruction. In Rwanda, the education system
and situational linguistic opportunities for learning,
and the curricula are being reconstructed in a way that
and for cognitive and social growth.
will teach the learners to be considerate citizens, without

Western-style schools attended by indigenous or
practising discrimination. Peace education is also part of
minority groups should pay special attention to the
the new Rwandan curriculum, whereby children are
specific languages spoken by the pupils and to their
taught values such tolerance, solidarity, cultural
diverse cultures. In such schools teachers should
diversity and human rights. In countries such as Somalia,
inquire and learn about minority social practices, so
where the formal education curriculum is presently being
that the other pupils can accept these groups.
developed, it is difficult to introduce more new items,

The more opportunity a child is given to acquire and
and also political sensitivities sometimes destroy
learn new languages, the wider the cultural
positive steps forward. In Burundi, the present cur-
flexibility and understanding. Thus, second-language
riculum does not have policy-backing, and teachers still
learning should place an emphasis on social use
use old methods and old curricula. It might not be possi-
rather than linguistic form, so that the pupils can
ble to introduce any form of teaching that could be relat-
construct a new culture via their second language.
ed to cultural diversity for there is no legal doc-


Educational planners and teachers must be aware of
ument to substantiate it, and teachers are not com-
the varying historical and socio-cultural situations in
petent enough and lack proper training to embark on
which learning takes place.
such a venture. In Ethiopia, the major complaint was
To conclude this section, we can say that adequate
related to too many political changes, since new projects
decisions in intercultural curriculum design, language
or initiatives are abandoned each time a new minister
choice and implementation in schools can contribute to
comes to power.
the empowerment of minorities in all societies. The
Furthermore, in Ke nya and Nigeria, the main
support and participation of parents, local leaders and
complaint was that the school timetable is already
authorities regarding the choice and effective use of
overloaded with many subjects, such that it is difficult to
indigenous languages as media of instruction can help to
include any more. It was mentioned during the debate
a c h i eve the goal of contributing to the children’s
that schools are expected to take care of many new
development through improved self-image, self-respect
issues, for instance, the issue of HIV/AIDS, information
and self-esteem. The most serious challenge regarding
and communication technology (ICTs) and many others.
this topic was teacher training—their understanding and
So the question was: at what time will these issues be
interpretation of multiculturalism, shared values and
addressed? A crucial point made by the Seychelles
d iversity—since each one of society’s problems is
r e p r e s e n t a t ive was that Africa may be adopting
pushed onto the school. Another main issue was that
initiatives from more mature education systems, and
what is taught in schools becomes diffused in society
suggested that it would be better for the countries to
when children go home. Participants reiterated that
develop their own home-grown systems.
parents and the entire society need to encourage young
people in order for schooling to succeed in what it
3. Pedagogical implications
teaches.
It is indeed essential for both students and teachers to
IV. EDUCATION FOR LIVING TOGETHER
become aware of the complexities regarding cultural
diversity and how shared values can help to alleviate the
In his opening speech at the seminar, the Ke ny a n
consequences that result when there is a lack of
Minister of Education stated that ‘living together is
understanding of this phenomenon. It is equally
impossible when there is intolerance, conflict and disre-
important to realise this task goes beyond schooling and
spect which has gone to school’. The Minister asserted
calls for society’s invo l vement. The follow i n g
that the curriculum should emphasize equitable learning
recommendations were outlined as guidelines on how
and harmonious co-existence for all people. The effi-
multiculturalism can be maintained within the school
ciency of formal education as an instrument of integra-
setting without introducing conflicting ideas between
tion and social cohesion is increasingly questioned as
d i fferent ethnic groups and nationalities. T h e s e
rapid changes associated with the multiple processes of
recommendations also tried to take into consideration
globalization weaken traditional models of social, politi-
issues of overloaded timetables and that it is not really
cal and economic organization. As a result, schools have
necessary for countries and schools to introduce a new
been charged with duties that teachers sometimes feel
16

society could do much better. As Tawil (2001, p. 1) puts
State secondary schools has been developed aimed at
it, social exclusion, armed conflict and school-based
assisting those students who have failed twice in formal
violence have recently emerged as important social
schools, but are too young to be employed. This system
concerns calling for a radical re-examination of the role
ensures that these learners do not immediately enter the
of education in ensuring social cohesion. As has been
work market and, when they do, are equipped with some
observed earlier, some of the countries that participated
pre-vocational skills that could help them get better
in this seminar had been involved in a war (Burundi),
employment or gain access to technical schools/colleges.
while some are in a post war era (Somalia, Ethiopia,
Democratic Republic of Congo and Rwanda). These
2. Schools and violence
countries have been exposed to violence that has
Violence can be defined as ‘behaviour against people
a d versely affected their education systems and the
liable to cause physical or psychological harm’ (Osler,
learners. There are many kinds of violence that can affect
2001, p. 2). Although the term violence in schools is now
education, schools and learners. This makes it all the
widely accepted, there is a preference among many
more imperative for these countries to strive for social
practitioners and academics to use terms such as
cohesion, democracy and education for living together.
‘anti-social behaviour or incivility’. Violence is also a
Education is one way of curbing violence and learning
natural human reaction to avoid unpleasant and painful
how to deal with the victims of violence.
experiences, and it is a reality in both schools and
society. Ohsako (1997, p. 7) asserts that to admit vio-
1. Education and social exclusion
lence in schools, which are traditionally havens of learn-
ing and growth, is particularly painful. However, as Osler
Social exclusion can be defined as the exclusion of the
(2001, p. 2) shows, violence and human rights viola-
poor (or minority groups in some cases) from the
tions are inflicted on learners by other learners—and
benefits associated with economic growth and progress,
sometimes by teachers.
exclusion from the accompanying socialization
Institutional violence also includes exclusion from
experienced through access to education, consumption,
school, as used by teachers and head-teachers to control
identity and social recognition (Tawil, 2001, p. 3). There
unruly behav i o u r. This can be either temporary or
are a series of exclusions that can be economic in nature
permanent (expulsion). Those who are permanently
(exclusion from employment, means of production, land,
excluded from school rarely return to mainstream
etc.), political (denial of security, of representation, of
education, since students’ records are kept for future
citizenship, of rights, etc.) and social (exclusion from
reference by other schools. In effect, a form of
education, health services, housing, etc.). Any of these
institutional violence is applied to young people who are
forms of social exclusion could lead to breakdown at the
already experiencing problems at school (learning
familial, economic, political and social levels, possibly
problems) or at home. For instance, refugee children who
resulting in anger and frustration. The final outcome of
have experienced trauma and violence can themselves
such a situation could be violence in terms of war,
become very unruly and violent if excluded from school
genocide and even terrorism. Educationally, children and
(Osler, 2001, p. 4). In some cases, the education system
even teachers who live with social exclusion end up
has laws, customs and practices that sys-
frustrated since they are discriminated against and are
tematically reflect racial or religious inequalities, leading
denied their human rights—such as the right to education
to some kind of exclusion for those who do not belong to
in the case of learners.
the ‘right’ race or religion. There is also school-based
As both an instrument of domination and oppression,
violence, which includes bullying between youngsters,
or of democracy and liberation, education can incite
intimidation and physical aggression towards teaching
conflict, violence or alternatively encourage social
personnel, vandalism, racketeering and sexual violence
exclusion. For instance, exclusion from minimal levels of
(Tawil, 2001, p. 7). There are also different types
schooling leads to a lifetime of exclusion from basic enti-
of violence, such as reactive violence whereby children
tlements, employment, social acceptance, dignity and the
find themselves in trouble as a response to a long histo-
right of citizenship (Tawil, 2001, p. 9). This implies that
ry of ‘everyday aggression’ a gainst them. In some
the continual ‘denial’ of access to basic education in

instances, the violence is legitimized such as when
many countries for various reasons perpetuates
teachers are allowed to cane students. Lastly, in some
economic disparities and social exclusion. In Comoros,
low-income countries, parents are afraid of sending their
25% of the learners do not have access to basic education
daughters to school for fear of sexual harassment and
and less than 10% of students enter high school; in
rape. In Nigeria, if a family is poor, they are more likely
Ethiopia, only 51% of the school-going population
to send a male child to school than a female one.
has enrolled at primary level. Thus, the question is:
What happens to those children who never have a chance
3. Challenging violence
to see the inside of a classroom? This is the beginning of
their social exclusion, for they have not received the min-
According to Ohsako (1997, p. 16; see also Osler, 2001,
imal formal education that would make them eligible for
p. 7), the following measures can help to tackle violence
employment and other social benefits.
in schools:
In Mauritius, a system of pre-vocational streams in

Rights and re s p o n s i b i l i t i e s: The United Nations
17

C o nvention on the Rights of the Child (1989)
science-related careers. A more science-literate
reaffirms children’s right to education. It also asserts
population is perceived as being better equipped to
that the State has an obligation to protect children
contribute to sustainable economic development and to
from abuse, neglect and all forms of violence. It is
social welfare through informed decision-making (Ware,
therefore every State’s responsibility to protect
1992, p. 1). Moreover, teaching science to enhance the
children against all forms of violence and social
capacity for ‘living together’means building an image of
exclusion.
science as a culture, as a language, as a heritage for all

School curriculum: The concepts of peaceful conflict
mankind and as a quest that does not conflict with other
resolution, social responsibility, constructive
ways of making sense of the world (Labate, 2001, p. 1).
communication and interactive approaches should be
Science as a compulsory subject had the following
incorporated into existing lessons, rather than
characteristics: (i) it was divided into disciplines, such as
creating additional subjects and learning materials. A
chemistry, biology and physics; (ii) there was a tendency
major complaint of most countries at the seminar was
to produce ‘simplified versions’ of the science syllabus
that curricula are already too overloaded.
taught at higher education institutions; (iii) it wa s

S chool-community co-opera t i o n: Te a c h e r / p a r e n t
impossible to cover such a vast number of topics in the
communication is a crucial factor in violence
time allocated in the school timetable. As a way of
management and in regulating students’ behavioural
moving away from this situation, there has been a shift
problems. In many developing countries, parents still
from discipline-based to an interdisciplinary approach to
have this belief and notion that schools are the
science teaching.
teacher’s domain, but the fact remains that when a
child leaves school, he/she goes home to his parents.
1. Interdisciplinarity in science teaching
Thus, a coalition between the two parties could prove
helpful and support children in continuing to learn
An interdisciplinary approach consciously applies
non-formally at home.
methodology and language from more than one

The promotion of equity, including gender, race,
discipline to examine a central theme, issue, topic or
ethnicity and disability: Schools are obliged to
experience—making links of complementarity or
involve staff and students in the formulation of such
co-operation in order to integrate students’ learning
policies, so that all sectors within the school are
(Labate, 2001, p. 10). In other words, interdisciplinary
catered for.
teaching gives a global view of content and a holistic

The preservation of humanity’s cultural and
view of what is being taught by also incorporating the
intellectual heritage: It is important for subjects, such
learners’ experience and culture. According to Jenkins
as history, to be interpreted from a variety of
(1997, p. 25), science is a way of making sense of the
perspectives in different times and places.
world, but not the only one. Scientists understand the
world in a particular way and they express it through a
Finally, according to Tawil (2001, p. 9), formal education
language that is not the one we use for everyday speech.
in some cases can fail in its nation-building and
Thus, an intervention of a practical kind in the natural
distributive functions, thus encouraging social exclusion.
world can never be value-free. This implies that science
And, as it has been said earlier, violence is a natural
taking into consideration the interest of children, their
reaction to avoid unpleasant and painful experiences. It
experiences and cultural backgrounds, will be much
follows that those students who are excluded from school
more appreciated.
through expulsion or bullying, because of war, poverty or
Furthermore, interdisciplinary teaching may consider
refugee status are more likely to be violent as a way of
several contexts, such as: classroom inquiry about a
releasing their anger. Therefore, it is highly imperative
science topic that allows the study of factors from the
that countries, education systems and schools should try
point of view of more than one scientific discipline;
to keep learners at school for as long as possible so
exploring how machines work and how they are made,
as to avoid social exclusion. This will have an effect on
making links with technological knowledge; learning the
long-term violence and anger among excluded learn-
history of scientific concepts in relationship to history,
ers. Countries such as Rwanda, Somalia, the Democratic
geography and society; and social and personal issues
Republic of Congo and Burundi need peace education in
such as the use of natural resources, the environmental
order to help learners to understand the past and look into
impact of human activities, the prevention of natural
the future. There is also a need for psychological support
catastrophes, etc. During the seminar, different countries
for young war victims in some countries.
voiced their opinions regarding this approach to science.
V. CURRICULUM, SCIENCE TEACHING
2. Perspectives on science teaching
AND INTERDISCIPLINARITY
and interdisciplinarity
More than any previous period of human history, the
It was agreed that although interdisciplinary teaching
twentieth century was profoundly marked by
may be the best option or solution, in some cases
developments in science and technology. Across the
teachers have their own biases and end up concentrating
world, science is increasingly viewed as a subject of
their efforts on areas of science that they like or that they
lifelong utility to all students, whether or not they follow
18

find easy to teach. In some cases, teachers concentrate on
science and technology are not subjects that arouse the
the content that will be assessed in the final examination,
same enthusiasm as sports and rock music. Thus, it is
to the detriment of other issues of less importance as far
very important that curriculum developers and teachers
t h ey are concerned. In most of the participating
alike should try to make science interesting and more
countries, science subjects have the highest attrition and
related to learners’ daily lives. In such circumstances,
drop-out rates. Thus, it was agreed that a user-friendly
curriculum developers could benefit from the following
approach is necessary to encourage more girls to join the
guidelines:
field of science. Most of the participants agreed that the

A science curriculum must focus on a limited number
teaching of science in schools is not exclusively the
of concepts;
domain of those who will be future engineers and

Concepts have to be organized taking into account
scientists, but should contribute to an equitable education
their level of difficulty;
for all students (Labate, 2001, p. 4).

The curriculum should allow children to improve
It was mentioned that in Kenya, while the teaching of
their understanding of day-to-day events, making it
science is a daunting task for most teachers, the
richer and more complex;
interdisciplinary approach is even more challenging.

Content should encourage a parallel development of
Thus, it was felt that teacher training would have to be
scientific procedures and attitudes;
r evised if the interdisciplinary approach was to be

Content is adequate when it is related to the students’
employed. In Rwanda, the German government had
world (health, bodily functions, daily use of objects,
helped teachers to practise interdisciplinary teaching, but
etc.);
only up to grade III in body hygiene and environmental

Differentiation of content within disciplines should
science. In Mauritius, integrated science had been
be a goal—and not a starting point.
attempted as a subject, but those teachers who
A very important question addressed during the seminar
specialized in one subject, such as chemistry, focused on
was what teaching methodology should be used that
what they knew, rather than trying to integrate it with
could arouse the learners’ interest in sciences and also
other subjects.
help them to understand the content that is being taught.
For countries such as Somalia and the Democratic
The working document on Workshop No. 5 of the ICE
Republic of Congo, who are trying to pick up the pieces
(International Bureau of Education, 2001, p. 9) listed the
after a conflict, the idea of interdisciplinarity seemed to
following methods:
be a far-fetched ideal while grappling with a basic
curriculum to satisfy the needs of the people. Fo r

Experimental practices and getting in touch with
Burundi, where the war still continues, although to a
reality: Great emphasis has to be placed on practical
lesser degree, it is difficult to start implementing such
work and learner involvement in that practical work;
complicated ideas as interdisciplinary science teaching.

Making the learner act: Students should play an
active role if they are to learn;
3. The curriculum and science teaching

Diversifying learning paths: Every student has to
follow his/her own learning path, so that they can
If we accept the importance of teaching science to all
learn with ease;
students, the curriculum development process means

Taking account of initial re p re s e n t a t i o n s: T h e
making decisions on what is to be taught, how and when.
students’prior knowledge or ideas form an important
It will also be necessary to develop materials that can
base for what is going to be taught, and that
help students to learn and teachers to teach.
k n owledge will help to facilitate or block the
While the practical side of science teaching is very
students’learning;
crucial, there are many examples of well-intentioned

K n o w l e d ge about knowledge: Once the learning
planners taking decisions on the curriculum that teachers
process has been completed, the diffi c u l t i e s
must apply, but who failed to consider specific students’
encountered must be discussed with the learner, so as
needs, school organizational constraints, teachers’
to see how much has been understood;
competencies or the contexts in which science is taught.

Project-oriented teaching methods: Using projects is
Therefore, the curriculum must show some degree of
the best way to increase pupil invo l vement in
flexibility and openness permitting regional and local
numerous ways during the teaching and learning
adaptations (Labate, 2001, p. 7). Teachers are important
process;
role-players if the interdisciplinary approach is to

Documentary research: This involves some specific
succeed. For teachers, acquiring a mastery of
technical skills and would depend on the availability
interdisciplinary teaching is not easy, and introducing
of learning materials, such as textbooks, reference
this approach in the classroom requires changes in
books, the Internet, etc.
teaching methodologies that are difficult to anticipate
To conclude, to live together in an increasingly complex,
and manage (See: International Bureau of Education,
globalized and scientific world requires individuals and
2001, p. 14). As far as students are concerned, science
communities capable of continually developing and
teaching, its syllabus and methods frequently fa i l
utilizing various kinds of knowledge frameworks, value
because they do not sufficiently take into consideration
systems and skills. In order to help students to achieve
the pleasure that young people derive from discovery—
this kind of understanding, the curriculum needs to be
19

designed taking into account their daily lives and
‘Education is an inalienable right—the one that all
cultural background, and emphasizing a sense of wonder
children, including those caught in natural and human-
and respect for the world.
made emergencies, must be able to access’ (UNICEF,
1999, p. i). This implies that education as a right for all
VI. EDUCATION IN EMERGENCY SITUATIONS
children of the world as stipulated in the Convention on
the Rights of the Child (Article 28) has to be provided to
1. The curriculum and the HIV/AIDS pandemic
children at all costs, in all situations. However, on-going
political, social and economic instability in many regions
Education is an essential building block in any country’s
of the world impede access to regular education for large
development. In African countries where the HIV/AIDS
numbers of children. They may be affected by war,
pandemic is at its peak, teacher and learner ill health,
conflicts and natural disasters, such as famine, drought
absenteeism and death characterize the educational
and floods. In such situations, a type of education for
terrain. According to UNESCO (2001, p. 5), the high rate
emergencies has to be developed in order to assist and
of disease and death among teachers, health workers and
satisfy these children’s right to education.
trained professionals from other fields will make replace-
Furthermore, education has been increasingly viewed
ments increasingly hard to find, erode access to educa-
and perceived as an integral part of the humanitarian
tion, interfere with the capacity of all educational institu-
response to emergencies. Nonetheless, UNICEF (1999,
tions to function, and finally overwhelm the capacity to
p. i) warns that education is not a relief activity. It is cen-
cope. Children are also at risk on an unparalleled
tral to human and national development since it may
scale—millions are becoming orphans and will grow up
serve to prevent man-made emergencies, such as war and
deprived of their right to education. They may run the
conflicts, through the teaching of peace and citizenship.
risk of social exclusion since they are more likely to drop
In such a case, education must be a vehicle to form
out of school through lack of money to pay school fees,
citizens who value peace, respect others, and understand
or the need to take care of their younger siblings at home
cultural and ethnic diversity. In the midst of all these fine
or to take up early employment.
words, full of expectation and anticipation, many
Although HIV/AIDS was identified as early as the
problems have surfaced in different countries. Amongst
1980s as a killer disease, and has subsequently plagued
these are: problems experienced by the refugees
Africa more than any other region of the world, it is
themselves; problems experienced by the host countries;
surprising to learn that in most African countries
and the problems experienced by the educational
HIV/AIDS education is still not part of the curriculum.
providers in both asylum countries and the refugees’
For instance, in Eritrea there have been efforts to declare
country of origin.
a national policy on AIDS, and religious leaders are
To conclude, the participants pointed out that we
expected to play a role in this campaign since it is clear
cannot find a cure unless we properly diagnose the
that the country needs a preventive strategy. But it has
illness. For instance, violence that leads to war, genocide
not yet been done. In the Seychelles, the national
and, more recently, terrorism is a social, economic and
curriculum has provision for HIV/AIDS, and the media
political phenomenon. Thus, schools alone cannot curb
is also fully involved in this campaign. However, young
the surge of violence in most countries. Children are
people have not changed their behaviour yet. In
continually exposed to it through domestic violence,
Mauritius, the disease has minimal preva l e n c e ;
community conflicts and the media. Thus, it was agreed
nonetheless NGOs are very much invo l ved in the
that governments, the community and parents have a
campaign compared to schools. The major problems in
stake in trying to combat the violence affecting many
Ethiopia are related to Islamic, poor, urban areas—those
countries in sub-Saharan Africa. Devadoss (2001, p. 7)
who live there do not believe that AIDS exists and that it
concludes that creating and maintaining social cohesion
is a deadly disease, since people who are infected with it
has become more of a challenge due to globalization, but
die of common diseases such as malaria, tuberculosis
it is also being ripped apart by real or perceive d
and others.
prejudices and injustices that result in civil strife, ethnic
The challenge to overcome the epidemic is
and religious conflicts, social disintegration and—
overwhelming and the first and the most crucial
lately—terrorism.
contribution that an education system can make to is to
protect the threatened systems so that schools can
VII. CONCLUDING REMARKS
continue to provide quality education and training
(Coombe, 2001, p. 437). Responding to the HIV/AIDS
Africa is a continent of countless calamities—for many
assault on education includes creating a policy and
years it has been plagued by ethnic and religious
management framework that can bring about effective
conflicts and wars, genocides, poverty and debt, natural
changes.
disasters such as famine, drought and floods, racism, and
pandemic diseases such as HIV/AIDS, malaria and
tuberculosis. As the new millennium dawns, while
coming to terms with globalization, science and
2. Education in emergency situations
t e c h n o l o g y, linguistic and cultural dive r s i t y, shared
values, democracy, education for all and education for
20

l iving together, many African countries are still
Geneva, 5-8 September 2001.]
struggling to provide their inhabitants with the basics—
——. 2001b. ‘Curriculum, diversity, education and shared
food, clean wa t e r, housing and primary education.
values’. Paper presented at the seminar on Curriculum
Nonetheless, African countries are part of the wider
D evelopment and Education for Living To g e t h e r :
community. They do not want to be left out and are ready
Conceptual and Managerial Challenges in Africa and the
World, Kenya, 25-29 June 2001.
to be part of the global village. As a result, all countries
Naumann, J. 2001. Curriculum and languages: A f r i c a n
that participated in the seminar were engaged in some
languages and learning strategies. Paper presented at the
kind of educational reforms, because it was felt that edu-
seminar on Curriculum Development and Education for
cation is also a basic need that could help societies to live
Living Together: Conceptual and Managerial Challenges in
together in peace and harmony.
Africa and the World, Kenya, 25-29 June 2001.
Nwomonoh, J. 1998. Education and development in Africa: a
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21

Développement du curriculum
pour vivre ensemble en Afrique
John Aglo
Comme d’autres secteurs, l’éducation est confrontée à de
de l’apprentissage – problèmes et solutions ». Par
sérieux problèmes en Afrique au Sud du Sahara, et il
ailleurs, les nouvelles préoccupations prioritaires de
n’est d’ailleurs plus nécessaire de rappeler un tel constat.
la communauté internationale en matière d’éduca-
C’est pourquoi, la démarche pertinente aujourd’hui ne
tion, telles qu’elles ont été exprimées dans le Cadre
consiste pas à se poser la question de savoir s’il y a des
d’action adopté à la clôture du Forum mondial sur
problèmes en Afrique subsaharienne, ni même, quels
l’éducation, tenu à Dakar du 26 au 28 avril 2000, ont
sont les problèmes que connaît cette partie du continent
aussi inspiré le contenu de ce séminaire-atelier.
africain,
mais
plutôt
d’avoir
d’autres
types
Du reste, les différentes missions du BIE, celles qu’il met
d’interrogations, à savoir : Que faisons-nous avec les
en œuvre à travers la CIE ou au moyen de séminaires et
problèmes, une fois que nous les avons identifiés comme
cours de formation, ou encore celles qu’il accomplit dans
des problèmes ? Comment, une fois dépistés, sont-ils
le cadre du suivi de Dakar, constituent toutes des
gérés d’abord en tant que problèmes affectant des
t e n t a t ives de réponse aux problèmes nombreux et
populations d’une région, d’un État, d’une communauté,
complexes qui se posent par rapport à l’éducation de par
ensuite et si nécessaire, en relation avec les problèmes
le monde et qui atteignent, dans certaines régions et
analogues et les expériences des régions, Ét a t s ,
notamment en Afrique au Sud du Sahara, un seuil
communautés
d’autres
parties
du
monde
?
critique et tragique.
Ces problématiques de gestion des problèmes éducatifs
Ces différentes raisons, sous-jacentes à l’organisation
devraient donc désormais s’imposer.
du séminaire atelier et au choix du thème principal, vont
Voilà, au fond, l’esprit sous-jacent aux diff é r e n t s
également déterminer la conduite des activ i t é s ,
séminaires qu’a organisés le Bureau international
l’organisation des ateliers et le choix de leur thème
d’éducation (BIE) et plus particulièrement, celui qui
respectif. En effet, les contributions des participants sous
s’est tenu à Nairobi, au Kenya, du 25 au 29 juin 2001, sur
forme de rapports nationaux ont permis de faire l’état des
le thème : « Développement du curriculum et éducation
lieux sur les problèmes qui se posent aux systèmes
pour vivre ensemble : problèmes de concepts et de
éducatifs des pays de la région avec une insistance sur
gestion en Afrique ».
leur dimension curriculaire.
L’ o rganisation de ce séminaire-atelier,





















Quatre ateliers ont été consacrés à des thèmes choisis
la détermination de son contenu et plus particulièrement
d’après les critères qui ont été énoncés plus haut. Ils
le choix de son thème se justifient à plus d’un titre :
répondent donc à la fois aux demandes émanant des

L’une de ces raisons, est sans aucun doute liée au
pays de la région et constatées, suite à des études
nouveau mandat même du BIE. En effet, depuis
préliminaires, et aux exigences de la préparation de la
1998, la mission du BIE s’est orientée principalement
de la CIE dont ils anticipent certains des ateliers.
vers le contenu et les méthodologies de l’éducation.

Deux autres ateliers se situent dans le cadre du suivi
Cependant, l’intérêt du BIE pour le curriculum est
de Dakar et répondent à des situations dramatiques :
associé à l’un des défis majeurs du nouveau siècle,
le VIH/SIDA et l’éducation dans les situations de
l’exigence du vivre-ensemble.
conflit.

Une autre raison ayant contribué à déterminer le
L’ensemble des travaux a conduit alors à faire ressortir
contenu et le thème du séminaire-atelier est
des problèmes et solutions caractéristiques de la situation
l’organisation de la 46e session de la Conférence
éducative de la région concernée. Ces problèmes et
internationale de l’éducation (CIE), à Genève, du 5
solutions peuvent êtres rangés en deux grandes
au 8 septembre 2001. Incarnant le dialogue politique
catégories : ceux qui concernent l’ensemble des pays
et le matérialisant à une très haute instance, la CIE
participants et qui peuvent être caractérisés comme des
apparaît comme une manifestation principale de la
situations partagées ou transnationales et ceux qui sont
mission du BIE. De nombreuses activités et des
plus spécifiques à certains États.
séminaires ont été consacrés à sa préparation. Ainsi,
le séminaire-atelier de Nairobi, tout en s’intéressant
aux situations éducatives des États d’Afrique de
I. LES PROBLÈMES ET SOLUTIONS DE
l’Est, a aussi servi comme cadre de préparation de la
DIMENSIONS TRANSNATIONALES
CIE. Ce n’est donc pas par hasard qu’il y ait un
parallèle entre le thème de ce séminaire-atelier et
Parmi les problèmes et solutions à ranger dans cette
celui de la CIE qui est : « L’éducation pour tous pour
c a t égorie, il convient de commencer par citer la
apprendre à vivre-ensemble : contenus et stratégies
problématique de l’enseignement des langues.
22

1. La problématique de l’enseignement des langues
et à l’organisation des contenus d’enseignement, soit par
rapport à leur efficacité sur le comportement des
La problématique de l’enseignement des langues ne
apprenants ou encore par rapport à leur fonctionnement
devrait pas être normalement séparée de l’ensemble des
eu égard à leur gestion et administration. La sélection et
questions curriculaires, et il ne semble pas y avoir une
l ’ o rganisation des contenus d’enseignement ont été
justification scientifique à une telle séparation. Si elle
examinées à partir d’une mise en relation de l’éducation
s’impose ici, c’est tout simplement parce que pour les
avec chacune des thématiques suivantes :
États de la région, cette problématique occupe une

La violence et la cohésion sociale ;
position centrale dans les préoccupations curriculaires.

La diversité culturelle et les valeurs partagées ;
En se situant dans le contexte social et linguistique du

Les maladies endémiques : VIH-SIDA ;
Sénégal, Jens Naumann1 a pris position par rapport à des

L’enseignement des sciences et l’interdisciplinarité ;
études conduites en vue de la détermination du taux de
Ces thématiques ne sont pas posées simplement comme
réussite des élèves sur l’initiative du SACMEQ2, de
des thèmes, mais aussi et en même temps comme des
l’INEADE3 et du PASSEC4. Il a signalé que dans ces
valeurs et des situations ayant des implications sociales,
études une attention suffisante ne semble pas avoir été
politiques et économiques de grande importance.
accordée aux données relatives aux milieux linguistiques
de base des élèves. Ces études sont caractéristiques d’une
2. La violence et la cohésion sociale
o b s e r vation plus générale qui est que des études
sérieuses sur la relation entre les performances scolaires
La question a été présentée sous deux angles. Dans un
et les milieux linguistiques de base des élèves manquent
cas, il a été question de la transmission des contenus dans
en Afrique. Or, de telles études seraient nécessaires pour
les situations de conflits, des problèmes qui se posent, et
combler les lacunes structurelles qui minent le processus
de la manière de les dépasser ou les prévenir. Dans ce
d’apprentissage.
cas, l’éducation peut être considérée comme étant
Par leurs différents apports, les autres experts ont
victime de conflit et de violence qu’elle a ou non
montré que ce manque constituait en lui-même un
engendrés. Dans l’autre cas, le conflit et la violence sont
problème important pour l’éducation et l’apprentissage.
examinés par rapport à leur manifestation à l’école ou
Ces apports ont contribué à mettre l’accent sur la
dans la vie ou en tant que résultant de la sélection et de
nécessité de la prise de conscience de l’importance dans
l’organisation des contenus et méthodes d’enseignement
le processus d’apprentissage de la langue maternelle ou
et d’administration de l’école.
de la principale langue de l’environnement naturel de
Face à ces deux cas, l’éducation peut être envisagée
l’enfance. Il ressort clairement des contributions de ces
comme moteur d’action, ou moyen d’action contre la
experts que l’utilisation, en tant que langue
violence, que ce soit pour lutter contre une situation de
d’enseignement de cette langue maternelle ou principale,
violence ou pour la prévenir. Il faudra alors veiller à faire
offre de meilleures possibilités d’apprentissage pour
en sorte que la sélection et l’organisation des contenus et
l’enfant.
méthodes d’enseignement ne soient pas directement, ou
Malgré ces conclusions d’ordre scientifique, force est
indirectement, cause de violence à l’école ou dans la vie.
de noter que l’opinion publique manifeste un certain
En fait, les cas où l’éducation est victime des
scepticisme quant à l’efficacité et l’utilité des langues
situations de conflits et de guerre paraissent plus
locales. Il faut indiquer qu’elle ignore tout des résultats
spectaculaires. Ils sont en effet plus médiatisés. Force est
et du consensus de la communauté scientifique quant au
de rappeler toutefois que les cas où l’école est prise dans
fait que la langue locale est le véhicule le plus adapté
un tourbillon de violence ne sont pas les plus réguliers.
pour l’acquisition des concepts. La langue locale souffre
Plus souvent -mais on en rend moins compte-, et de
d’une perception néga t ive. Elle est souvent perçue
façon plus insidieuse, l’école est un lieu de violence
comme étant insuffisamment « développée » pour
permanente. Le professeur Audrey Osler parle d’une
assurer la transmission des concepts modernes dans le
« violence institutionnalisée » à l’école. Celle-ci ne se
domaine des sciences et technologie. L’opinion publique
manifeste pas seulement dans l’administration de l’école
continue à croire que la maîtrise de la langue étrangère
sous forme de moyens de gestion des comportements et
héritée de la colonisation est la solution cardinale pour la
des relations interpersonnelles et donc de méthode de
réussite scolaire et pour la réussite sociale et
discipline. Elle se manifeste aussi à travers l’organisation
professionnelle. Elle exige que la langue étrangère soit
ou la gestion du curriculum. Cette violence se déploie
enseignée à l’enfant de plus en plus tôt pour être bien
sous forme d’exclusion de l’école, de discrimination sur
maîtrisée. L’utilisation de la langue de l’environnement
la base du genre, de la religion, de la race, de l’ethnie.
naturel de l’enfant comme langue d’enseignement n’est
L’idée de « violences », au pluriel, doit être saisie
donc pas toujours bien accueillie. Il faut en conclure que
comme très importante du point de vue conceptuel. Elle
l’utilisation de la langue étrangère comme médium
doit comprendre non pas seulement la violence des
d’enseignement bénéficie d’un très fort soutien auprès de
situations d’urgence comme celles des réfugiés, mais
l’opinion publique.
aussi les violences d’origine familiale, communautaire,
Les autres questions auxquelles les participants au
celle des médias, la violence enseignant-élève, en
séminaire-atelier se sont intéressés d’une manière
d’autres termes toute violence qui est le reflet de la
explicite, ont été abordées soit par rapport à la sélection
frustration sociale.
23

3. Curriculum et diversité culturelle
environnements linguistiques dans leurs pays d’accueil.
Le système éducatif de certains des États évolue encore
L’école et le curriculum doivent s’intéresser désormais
maintenant dans des contextes de conflit. Cela appelle à
au réexamen des valeurs telles que la tolérance, le
la mise en place d’une forme d’éducation adaptée aux
pluralisme, le respect mutuel, le pluralisme linguistique,
situations d’urgence. C’est le cas de la Somalie -où
la démocratie. Ils doivent viser le développement des
l’UNESCO PEER intervient activement-, de la
compétences tels que « la flexibilité cognitive », le
République démocratique du Congo et du Burundi.
développement de l’estime de soi et du respect de soi. Ils
L’Ethiopie et l’Erythrée ont opté pour le pluralisme
doivent prendre en charge le relativisme culturel dans le
linguistique à l’école et reconnaissent l’efficacité, à la
cadre des droits humains et l’ouverture « en direction »
fois culturelle et didactique, de l’utilisation de la langue
de l’inconnu. Ils doivent être caractérisés par le rejet
maternelle dans l’enseignement. Depuis quelques temps
d’une vision unique du monde et prendre acte du fait que
déjà, l’enseignement aux Seychelles a donné un
les cultures sont dynamiques. Tels sont pour Luiz E.
caractère normatif et institutionnel à l’éducation pour
López, les nouveaux défis auxquels l’école et le
vivre ensemble.
curriculum sont confrontés.
Bénéficiant d’une stabilité économique et démocra-
tique, le Mauricien jouit d’une scolarisation universelle
4. Curriculum et maladies endémiques : VIH-SIDA
totale et gratuite au niveau primaire. Mais paradoxale-
ment, à cause du goulot d’étranglement que représente le
La relation entre le curriculum et les maladies
passage au niveau secondaire et l’insistance sur
endémiques a été plus exactement ramenée à celle entre
l’examen de fin d’étude primaire, les taux d’abandon et
le curriculum et le VIH-SIDA et envisagée sous deux
de « double-échec » sont très élevés.
axes : l’aperçu de la situation critique dans la région
Aux Comores et au Nigeria des dispositions sont à
d’Asie et du Pacifique et la présentation concrète des
l’étude pour assurer la complémentarité et l’intégration
actions en vue de la prévention de VIH/SIDA au moyen
de l’enseignement de type coranique et celui de type
des améliorations, des innovations qualitatives en
officiel, qui ont jusque-là coexisté de façon parallèle. Par
matière de curriculum et de matériels didactiques.
ailleurs, le Nigeria s’est engagé depuis 1999 dans un
programme de neuf ans pour une éducation de base
5. Curriculum, enseignement des sciences et
universelle.
interdisciplinarité
Le Ke nya a présenté les facteurs affectant son
système éducatif en insistant sur les problèmes liés à
La relation entre le curriculum et les sciences a permis de
l’accès, l’équité, la pertinence et la qualité. La plupart
mettre en évidence l’importance de l’enseignement
des problèmes ont été reliés à des paramètres socio-
interdisciplinaire. Les participants ont insisté sur le lien
économiques et culturels, autrement dit, aux finances, à
entre l’enseignement des sciences, les valeurs sociales
l’accès égal de la fille et du garçon à la scolarisation, au
des sociétés prises individuellement et l’utilité des
manque de matériels adaptés et aux facteurs politiques. Il
sciences pour les apprenants.
a été question du mécanisme d’adaptation d’un
L’approche interdisciplinaire pourrait être une
curriculum développé au niveau central à des régions aux
solution contre la surcharge des programmes. Elle peut
conditions naturelles et socio-économiques diverses. La
permettre de réduire les programmes surcharg é s ,
représentation des acteurs régionaux dans l’instance cen-
résorber la fragmentation des emplois du temps,
trale pour la conception, la définition et le développe-
éliminer les impertinences. Toutefois, l’enseignement
ment du curriculum ont été envisagée comme un moyen
interdisciplinaire exige des enseignants bien formés, le
de remédier aux problèmes liés à la diversité des régions.
travail de groupe du personnel enseignant de l’école, du
La présentation des programmes d’éducation
matériel didactique soigneusement conçu et testé, un
pour la petite enfance et pour le système non formel a
soutien scolaire de la part d’un conseiller en matière de
montré le rôle et l’importance des acteurs autres que l’É-
science et curriculum.
tat dans ces secteurs. De même, il est important que soit
envisagé un mode de conciliation entre le milieu formel
II. LES PROBLÈMES ET SOLUTIONS
et le non formel, en vue d’un meilleur transfert des
SPÉCIFIQUES AUX ÉTATS
apprenants lorsque c’est nécessaire de l’un des sys-
tèmes vers l’autre. Le rôle des universités dans le proces-
Les systèmes éducatifs de certains États de la région ont
sus de développement du curriculum est apparu très
été affectés d’une façon particulièrement déterminante
important au Kenya. En dehors de son rôle tra-
par des crises aux conséquences politiques, sociales et
ditionnel dans la recherche en matière curriculaire, dans
culturelles importantes. Il a été dès lors très instructif
la formation des enseignants et des chercheurs et ges-
d’examiner la situation éducative dans les États, en ayant
tionnaires des curricula, l’université est associée de près
en esprit leur spécificité.
à l’élaboration, à la mise en œuvre et à l’évaluation des
Il est à noter que le Rwanda s’est engagé dans une
curricula, processus dans lesquels elle participe avec des
r é o rganisation en profondeur de l’ensemble de son
rôles de premier plan.
système éducatif, suite au retour de réfugiés et exilés
ayant connu différents systèmes éducatifs et différents
24

III. AUTRES QUESTIONS, ORIENTATIONS
pour être des problèmes de société. A ce sujet, l’évoca-
ET RECOMMANDATIONS
tion des cas attestés dans les pays occidentaux est très
instructive. L’école devient, de plus en plus, et sans jeu
Au cours de leurs travaux les experts ont eu aussi à
de mots, un lieu de violence et de conflit, un lieu de mise
aborder des questions qui, tout en ayant une dimension
en scène, en grandeur nature, des conflits déchirant
curriculaire, n’ont pas bénéficié d’un traitement très
l’ensemble de la société. En effet, dans ces pays, la ten-
approfondi, car ils ne faisaient pas l’objet des débats.
dance dans certaines écoles est de regrouper les élèves
Parmi ces questions, on peut signaler, par exemple, le
appartenant au même milieu socio-économique. Cela
caractère surchargé des programmes et le fait que dans de
développe une incapacité à apprendre dans un environ-
nombreux pays ils semblent être déterminés ou orientés
nement ouvrant à la diversité.
essentiellement en vue des examens. L’analyse des modes
Le service central chargé de l’inspection académique
d ’ examen, c’est-à-dire, de l’évaluation comme partie
et du renforcement de la qualité en matière curriculaire
i n t égrante du curriculum, conduit à retenir que ces modes
au Kenya a fait remarquer une tendance qui est valable
d evront être enrichis, mais tout en veillant à ne pas
pour
l’ensemble
des
pays.
Il
s’agit
d’aller
compliquer ou miner le curriculum.
progressivement, en matière d’évaluation du contenu et
Il est à noter aussi qu’il y a un manque d’information
du personnel enseignant, vers un mécanisme
concernant le degré d’utilisation de la technologie
d’auto-évaluation assuré par l’enseignant lui-même et au
(traditionnelle ou moderne) dans l’éducation pour vivre
sein de son école.
ensemble.
En vue d’assurer une meilleure prise en main des
Les ravages causés par le VIH/SIDA dans le milieu
situations de crises par le système éducatif et d’éviter que
de l’éducation, le renforcement des capacités dans la
ce dernier n’en soit trop affecté, la question relative à la
gestion des problèmes transnationaux et des situations
prévention des situations de crise au moyen de l’é-
spéciales, l’éducation multiculturelle et interculturelle,
ducation a été abordée. Des mécanismes de prévention
l’enseignement des valeurs, le rôle de l’histoire en tant
ont été suggérés. Par exemple, il a été question d’étudier
qu’instrument qui permet de combler le fossé entre les
l’opportunité d’intégrer des programmes d’enseignement
peuples, la recherche en matière d’éducation, l’approche
en situation d’urgence dans le programme ordinaire, la
i n t ég r a t ive dans l’enseignement des sciences, la
réhabilitation des générations ayant connu les situations
coopération internationale, régionale ou sous-régionale,
de crise, en développant dans leurs pays d’accueil la
la façon dont le curriculum pourrait répondre aux
possibilité pour les réfugiés et exilés, d’avoir des
situations nouvelles, et le rôle des organisations non
curricula basés sur les réalités de leur pays d’origine en
gouvernementales sont d’autant d’aspects qui ont, à cer-
vue de favoriser leur retour et leur future intégration.
tains moments, retenu l’attention des experts. Mais
Il apparaît évident que toute entreprise de
n’étant pas l’objet formel des travaux, ils n’ont pas pu
renforcement des capacités doit s’accompagner de
être approfondis.
dispositions dotant les enseignants d’équipements leur
D’une façon générale, il n’est pas aisé de séparer les
permettant d’assurer une mise en œuvre effective des
problèmes de contenus de ceux de la gestion de ces con-
plans et programmes.
tenus. C’est ainsi que les experts ont été conduits à exam-
Il est nécessaire en outre de mettre un accent
iner les questions relatives à la décentralisation ou à la
particulier sur l’enseignement à la maîtrise intellectuelle
déconcentration, à leurs répercussions sur la par-
et à l’utilisation des technologies modernes, des
ticipation aux décisions relatives à l’élaboration des cur-
technologies de l’information, sur l’accès à l’information
ricula. L’interrogation principale à cet égard, a con-
dans le domaine de la conception et du développement
sisté à savoir si une décentralisation effective pouvait être
du curriculum, sur le développement des stratégies et des
possible, si les écoles n’étaient pas dotées d’un degré
tests-pilotes.
d’autonomie suffisante pouvant faciliter l’enseignement
Les experts ont contribué à l’identification des
et l’apprentissage du vivre ensemble. La question de la
besoins dans les domaines suivants : le développement
décentralisation apparaît ainsi, essentiellement, en
des aptitudes à la recherche dans le domaine curriculaire
termes de participation. Et, de l’avis de nombreux
; l’acquisition de la connaissance et de l’expertise dans le
participants, les décisions curriculaires restent encore
domaine du développement du curriculum, l’acquisition
très souvent entre les mains de professionnels et excluent
de la connaissance des techniques pour assurer au
dans une certaine mesure la participation de la grande
curriculum la flexibilité nécessaire à l’adaptation aux
majorité de la communauté.
changements rapides ; pour la sélection de contenu, et la
Face aux problèmes curriculaires et aux réalités
mise à jour du curriculum en vue de lui éviter d’être
é d u c a t ives des États, il est apparu nécessaire
s u r c h a rgé
;
la
planification
du
curriculum,
d’entreprendre une action d’envergure visant à revoir
l’harmonisation et à l’adaptation du processus de
globalement ou à repenser profondément les approches
planification du curriculum aux ressources disponibles ;
pédagogiques plutôt que de continuer à leur apporter des
la négociation des allocations budgétaires, à la recherche
remèdes ponctuels de moins en moins efficaces.
de financements, à l’administration de la mise en œuvre
A force d’opter pour des solutions de replâtrage on
du curriculum ; aux relations publiques, à la
aboutit à des impasses et des difficultés insurmontables
communication, à la sensibilisation et aux mécanismes
débordant le cadre des problèmes strictement scolaires
de mobilisation de la communauté de base et des acteurs
25

clés de l’éducation pour la participation dans le proces-
6. L’élaboration des curricula qui peuvent également
sus de développement et de mise en œuvre de curriculum
servir de fer de lance pour l’enseignement des
; dans le domaine du pilotage et de l’évaluation de la
attitudes et comportements convenables ;
qualité du curriculum aux niveaux national, régional, et
7. La mise en place de dispositions donnant la priorité à
de l’école.
des programmes appropriés de formation de
Les travaux de ce séminaire-atelier ont conduit à des
formateurs, en vue de l’adaptation aux changements
recommandations, tenant compte du fait que la
multidimensionnels qui affectent l’éducation ;
globalisation doit faciliter la coopération régionale et
8. L’encouragement de la recherche dans le domaine de
internationale et la promotion de la diversité culturelle.
l’éducation pour les solutions qui sont adaptées aux
Considérant que les langues locales et nationales,
besoins spécifiques et à l’environnement des États
grâce aux grandes opportunités qu’elles fournissent à
africains ;
l’apprentissage, contribuent au développent personnel et
9. L’institutionnalisation d’un programme politique
social de l’enfant; ayant à l’esprit l’importance du
national sur les langues, propre à chaque nation ;
curriculum dans la promotion de l’éducation pour vivre
10. Le renforcement systématique des mesures contre
ensemble, les participants au séminaire-atelier font les 10
l’expansion du VIH/SIDA.
recommandations suivantes :
Notes
1. La mise en place d’un Institut panafricain des
concepteurs et des développeurs du curriculum ;
1. Dans un texte intitulé « Curriculum and language: teach-
2. La promotion des programmes d’échanges liés au
ings in African language and learning strategies »
s avo i r- faire curriculaire, au niveau régional et
Professeur Jens Naumann enseigne au Department of
inter-régional ;
Education and Social Sciences de l’Université de Münster
3. La révision des approches pédagogiques en usage en
(Allemagne),
et
à
l’Institut
1,
Fa c h b e r e i c h
vue d’y intégrer les valeurs permettant de vivre
Erziehungswissenschaft und Sozialwissenschaften.
ensemble ;
2. The Southern African Consortium for Monitoring
4. La protection des enfants contre toute forme de
Educational Quality.
3. Institut national d’études et d’action pour le développement
violence (institutionnelle ou implicite) ;
de l’éducation.
5. La promotion de l’équité au moyen du curriculum, en
4. Programme d’analyse des systèmes d’éducation de la
vue de prévenir l’émergence des situations pouvant
CONFEMEN.
engendrer la violence ;
26

PART III:
SELECTED ISSUES
IN A REGIONAL PERSPECTIVE
PARTIE III:
PROBLÉMATIQUES SÉLECTIONNEES
DANS UNE PERSPECTIVE
RÉGIONALE

Education and violence: education in emergency
situations—the issue of social cohesion
Audrey Osler
I. INTRODUCTION
II. SCHOOLS AND VIOLENCE
The 1974 UNESCO Recommendation concerning
A number of writers have criticized the coercive nature
Education for International Understanding, Co-operation
of mass schooling systems as inevitably violent and dam-
and Peace and Education relating to Human Rights and
aging (Meighan, 1994; Harber, 1997). Colonial edu-
Fundamental Freedoms remains a useful blueprint
cation systems were designed as mechanisms of con-
against which curriculum planners can assess the degree
trol, with a number of post-colonial governments in
to which the formal school curriculum has the essential
Africa using the schooling system that they inherited for
features necessary for learning and teaching for peace
their own political purposes of control (Harber, 1989).
and preventing violence. The commonly used short title
for this recommendation ‘Education for International
1. Institutional violence
U n d e r s t a n d i n g ’ disguises its value as a curriculum
f r a m ework for education for living together in the
A study of schools in nine countries in Africa, Asia and
community of the school itself and for promoting peace,
South America concluded that levels of institutional
human rights and democracy at local and national levels.
violence in some schools were so high that:
The Gulbenkian Fo u n d a t i o n ’s Commission on
Children and Violence defines violence as ‘behaviour
It is almost certainly more damaging for children to be in
against people liable to cause physical or psychological
school than out of it. Children whose days are spent
h a r m ’ (Gulbenkian Foundation, 1995, p. 4). T h e
herding animals rather than sitting in a classroom at least
Commission observed that: ‘in general, children are far
develop skills of problem solving and independence while
the supposedly luckier ones in school are stunted in their
more often victims of violence than perpetrators’
mental, physical and emotional development by being
(Gulbenkian Foundation, 1995, p. 1). Most importantly,
rendered passive, and having to spend hours each day in a
the Commission noted that: ‘Schools can either be a
crowded room under the control of an adult who punishes
force for violence prevention, or can provide an experi-
them for any normal level of activity such as moving or
ence which reinforces violent attitudes and adds to the
speaking (DfID, 2000, p. 12-13).
child’s experience of violence’(Gulbenkian Foundation,
1995, p. 139).
Institutional violence in schools may be expressed in a
Although the term ‘violence in schools’ is now
number of ways. In England, exclusion from school is
widely accepted, there was, until the late 1990s, a
used by headmasters as a sanction to control unruly
preference among many academics and practitioners to
behaviours of various sorts. The British government has
use terms such as ‘anti-social behaviour’ to identify the
expressed concern about the high levels of permanent
problem, and terms such as ‘the promotion of safety in
exclusion from school. Around 12,000 pupils each year
schools’ to describe the strategies needed to tackle this
are permanently excluded from school, and those who
problem (Debarbieux, 2001). Such terms focus attention
are excluded from secondary school rarely return to
on the individual or group thought to be ‘anti-social’. A
mainstream education. In effect, a form of institutional
focus on individuals, be they teachers or pupils, and on
violence is applied to young people who are
b e h aviour problems prevents consideration of the
experiencing problems in school. We know that
schooling system itself as problematic. It inv i t e s
disaffection and poor behaviour in school are often
solutions that address the individual, without due
linked to learning difficulties, that is to say, young
consideration being given to the school as an institution
people who cannot cope with the curriculum because
or to the whole system of schooling. In 2001 an
they lack the basic skills become frustrated and cover up
international conference entitled ‘Violence in Schools
their problems by causing trouble. There are also
and Public Policies’ was held in Paris, with the support
examples of young people being excluded from school
of UNESCO, the European Commission and the French
following bereavement, and of refugee children who
education authorities. This conference perhaps marks a
have undergone trauma and violence finding themselves
turning point in our recognition of violence in schools as
excluded because they then exhibit violent behaviours in
a real issue requiring policy responses, which address
school (Osler, Watling & Busher, 2001). In one tragic
schools as institutions and focus on the need for
case, a 10-year-old child committed suicide after a
educational reform.
dispute between his mother and his headmaster led to
him being excluded (McVeigh, 2001). There are
concerns that exclusion as a sanction is not only
28

ineffective but that it may have short-term and longer-
A number of writers have questioned how well-educated
term effects that undermine social cohesion and well-
people have, in various contexts during the twentieth
being. Disaffected young people are removed from the
century, been involved in acts of genocide and in crimes
classroom and many have little to do except wander the
against humanity:
streets. Links have been made between exclusion from
school and juvenile crime (Graham & Bowling, 1995).
The role of well-educated persons in the conception,
Those who are excluded may suffer longer-term social
planning and execution of genocide requires explanation;
exclusion, since they may have been denied the chance to
any attempt at explanation must consider how it was
gain basic qualifications.
possible that their education did not render genocide
unthinkable. The active involvement of children and young
people in carrying out acts of violence, sometimes against
2. Schools, racism and inequality
their teachers and fellow pupils, raises further questions
about the kind of education they had received (Retamal &
Forms of violence in school may be linked to
Aedo-Richmond, 1998, p 16).
institutional violence in the wider society. In 1999,
following an official inquiry into the police handling of
III. VIOLENCE AND THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM
the murder of a black teenager on the streets of London,
the British Government accepted the finding that not
1. Reactive violence
only was there institutional racism in the police force,
but that institutional racism ran right though society. The
In England it has been observed that the typical profile of
government pledged itself to an action plan to rid society
a white child excluded from school is one who has a
of institutional racism, and accepted that schools have a
history of behaviour problems, trauma and, often, special
key role. Yet, schools are not simply part of the solution,
educational needs. By contrast, the study found that
they are also part of the problem.
children from a Caribbean heritage family excluded from
Richardson and Wood (1999) provide a useful
school were more likely to be of above average ability
working definition of racism in education, exploring how
and less likely to have a history of behaviour problems
it can become institutionalized:
(OFSTED, 1996). It is possible that children in this latter
group find themselves in trouble as a result of behaviour,
In the education system there are laws, customs and
which is a response to a long history of ‘everyday
practices that systematically reflect and reproduce racial
violence’ against them. Schools are often less than
inequalities. [...] If racist consequences accrue to
c o n fident in dealing with issues such as racial
institutional laws, customs and practices, a school or a local
harassment, with teachers likely to tell children who
education authority or a national education system is racist
report harassment that they should not take verbal insults
whether or not individual teachers, inspectors, officers,
civil servants and elected politicians have racist intentions.
so seriously. When a child finally lashes out in response
[...] Educational institutions may systematically treat or
to the everyday violence of fellow pupils, she/he may be
tend to treat pupils and students differently in respect of
seen as the aggressor and punished.
race, ethnicity or religion. The differential treatment lies
R e a c t ive violence of a similar nature may be
within an institution’s ethos and organisation rather than in
expressed in reaction to various forms of institutional or
the attitudes, beliefs and intentions of individual members
interpersonal violence that individual children
of staff. The production of differential treatment is
experience during their schooling in various national
‘ i n s t i t u t i o n a l i s e d ’ in the way the institution operates
contexts. It may arise from the curriculum of schools.
(Richardson & Wood, 1999, p. 33).
For example, children whose cultures are not reflected in
textbooks and teaching materials or who struggle to cope
If this definition is adapted and applied in a variety of
with schooling in a language in which they are not
national contexts, we may see how institutional racism,
competent, may become disaffected or may fa i l .
which is a form of institutional violence, exists in many
Frustration and anger, when experienced over a period of
forms. In Rwanda, where genocide took place in 1994,
time, may lead to violence. This may take the form of
schools are identified, by the present government, as hav-
violence against other pupils, for example bullying or
ing contributed to the violence (Woodward, 2000). The
fighting, or, more rarely, violence against teachers.
education system, based on a colonial model, pre-
pared a small minority to run the country. The mas-


2. Legitimized violence
sacre of Tutsis by Hutus was based on total dehu-
manization of the other (Prunier, 1995). The violence
Violence by teachers against pupils takes a number of
in schools was not limited to separate schooling
forms. It may be formal punishment, such as caning,
and indoctrination. During the genocide:
which is condoned by the school. Eff e c t ive l y, this
becomes part of the informal curriculum, whereby pupils
Schools could not be places of refuge either and Hutu
teachers commonly denounced their Tutsi pupils to the
learn from authority figures that violence is an
militia or even directly killed them themselves (Prunier,
acceptable response when angry or when someone acts
1995, p. 254).
against your will. In many schools throughout the world
a system of rough justice operates, and teachers are not
required to seek the standards of proof that would be
29

required in a court of law. Parents often support such
rights. The African Charter of Human and People’s
violence. They may see it as an important part of a well-
Rights is the first attempt in an international human
disciplined school and may not complain—until what
rights instrument to define these responsibilities. Given
they see as unjustified action is taken against their own
this important emphasis in Africa on responsibilities, I
child.
have chosen to focus on how these might apply in edu-
cation. The Commission for Global Governance, which
3. Violence and gender inequality
reported at the time of the fiftieth anniversary of the
United Nations, identified a list of responsibilities:
Another type of violence against children, which is less

To contribute to the common good;
rarely talked about, is sexual abuse and rape to which

To consider the impact of their actions on the
young people at school have often been subjected. This
security and welfare of others;
makes many schools unsafe places. Fear for the safety of

To promote equity, including gender equity;
girls, both at school and in travelling to school, has been

To protect the interests of future generations by
cited as a reason why some parents are reluctant to send
pursuing sustainable development and safeguarding
their daughters to secondary school in some low-income
the global common good;
countries (UNICEF, 1996). Gender equality in school is

To preserve humanity’s cultural and intellectual
not just a question of ensuring that textbooks and teach-
heritage;
ing materials show non-stereotypical images of girls and

To be active participants in governance;
boys, women and men. It must involve a change in

To work to eliminate corruption (Commission on
public cultures (and appropriate sex education) so that
Global Governance, 1995).
girls act confidently and recognize that their worth is not
Although the form in which these responsibilities is
measured by the interest, which adult men, including
expressed varies from the African Charter, it broadly
teachers, may show in them.
echoes its intentions. The seventh responsibility, the
elimination of corruption, is innovative in human rights
4. Challenging violence
discourse. It is not hard to justify, however, as corruption
is corrosive of democracyæthe main guarantee of justice,
The 1989 United Nations Convention on the Rights of
equality and sustainable development. These seve n
the Child (CRC) reaffirms children’s right to an
responsibilities have implications for schools. I draw
education in human rights. It also asserts that the State
here on work undertaken in collaboration with a
has an obligation to protect children from abuse, neglect
colleague (Osler & Starkey, 2001). The responsibilities
and all forms of violence:
imply challenging violence and working towa r d s
democracy, peace and human rights.
State Parties shall take all appropriate leg i s l a t ive ,
This active obligation to work to further the aims of
administrative, social and educational measures to protect
the child from all forms of physical or mental violence,
the school community supposes that the aims are made
injury or abuse, neglect or negligent treatment,
known and that they are shared, i.e. that each member of
maltreatment or exploitation including sexual abuse, while
the community feels ownership of the goals of the
in the care of parent(s), legal guardians or any other person
institution. The aims will need to be rev i s i t e d
who has care of the child (CRC, Article 19).
periodically to take into account changing circumstances
and changing cohorts of students and to enable new
This section examines actions, which might be taken to
members of the community to contribute to the process
protect children from all forms of violence in schools.
of reformulation. There are many ways in which
Underlying each of these approaches are the principles
institutions can initiate their members and retain their
of human rights, which provide an internationally agreed
loyalty to the common purpose. In some cases, this will
standard which educators and curriculum planners can
include an identification of institutional goals and some
apply in a variety of cultural contexts (Osler & Starkey,
form of shared acknowledgement of symbols. These may
1996).
take many different forms, but might include school
assemblies, a school song, a celebration or prize giving,
IV. RIGHTS AND RESPONSIBILITIES
or perhaps the wearing of a uniform or badge. Provided
that the ceremonies or rituals are based on human rights
1. To contribute to the common good
principles and inclusive of all, it can be expected that all
members of the school will be able to support the aims
Article 29 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
expressed. Ceremonial expression of common loyalties
states that:
needs to be matched by real opportunities for sharing in
the benefits provided by the institution.
Everyone has duties to the community in which alone the
free and full development of his personality is possible
2. Consider the impact of actions on others
(UDHR, Article 29)
This obligation follows from the previous one. When
Human rights imply responsibilities. Human rights are
many people interact in close physical proximity, as in
reciprocal and we depend on each other to guarantee our
schools, these considerations are particularly important.
30

For instance, something as simple as keeping to the left
All members of the institution, staff and students, should
on stairs or not running in corridors will contribute
be aware of the possibility of corruption and know what
greatly to security and welfare.
steps are open to them if corruption is suspected. As with
issues of security, measures of prevention should be in
3. Promote equality, including gender equality
place.
The institution is obliged to have policies that help to
V. EVALUATING THE CULTURE
ensure equity. At the same time individuals have the
OF HUMAN RIGHTS IN SCHOOLS
responsibility to do their best to promote these policies.
At a minimum level, this implies that both staff and
Given the importance of the United Nations Convention
students are familiar with equal opportunity issues and
on the Rights of the Child (1989), which is by far the
the policies that derive from them. Ideally, both staff and
most widely ratified human rights convention, and given
students should be involved in the formulation of such
its particular relevance for schools, we have developed
policies and all parties or their representatives should be
an instrument entitled: Does your school environment
involved in the design and monitoring of such policies.
give everyone a chance to enjoy their rights? (Osler &
They should cover the curriculum as well as the informal
Starkey, 1998). Pupils, teachers, head-teachers, parents
provisions of the school and its ethos. Gender equity
and governors are provided with twenty-three statements
should not be divorced from other equality issues, such
and invited to respond by ‘always’, ‘sometimes’ or
as those relating to race, ethnicity and disability.
‘never’. These are arranged in three sections according to
their relevance to the three broad themes of the
4. Protect the interests of future generations
C o nvention, namely
provision,
protection
and
participation. Each statement is followed by a list of the
All members of the institution will be committed to
main articles of the Convention to which is relates. For
preserving its assets and protecting communal facilities.
example:
They will also have an education that helps them acquire

Provision: In the teaching of national history, due
a global perspective and an understanding of the concept
weight is given to women and minorities and to their
of sustainable development.
versions of history (CRC, Articles 2, 13, 28, 29.1 c &
d, 30).
5. Preserve humanity’s heritage

Protection: A student accused of breaking the rules is
presumed innocent until proven guilty and carries on
Tr a d i t i o n a l l y, preserving humanity’s cultural and
with classes (CRC, Article 28.2, 40).
intellectual heritage has been a major function of schools

Participation: Students and adults (including parents,
and universities. The reference is to the heritage of
teachers and administrative staff) are consulted about
humanity rather than of any single nation or region. This
the quality of the teaching in the school (CRC,
implies a broadly based curriculum, again with a global
Article S, 12, 18).
perspective. For example, in the teaching of history no
one national or religious perspective should be adopted.
The questionnaire also draws on descriptions of peda-
Students should be encouraged to understand that
gogic principles derived from the Convention (Osler &
historical events can be interpreted from a variety of
Starkey, 1996, p. 153-56). This questionnaire (see Table
perspectives in different times and places.
1 below) is a draft instrument that can be adapted by
schools for their own use. It is indicative of an approach
6. Be active participants in governance
to school self-evaluation within a human rights
framework. The aim is to contribute to the development
Institutions are obliged to provide structures for
of a culture of self-evaluation for human rights rather
participation. Individuals have a responsibility to be
than provide a definitive measure. It is presented in that
involved. Involvement can take many forms, and at its
spirit.
most basic may simply imply voting for a representative.
The school has a responsibility to establish participative
structures, such as school or class councils, and students
should be encouraged to consider decisions that affect
them.
7. Work to eliminate corruption
Most schools are financed with public or community
funds and those ultimately responsible for the institution
must be accountable for the use of those funds.
Democracy implies transparency in the use of resources
and any use of the funds for purposes incompatible with
the goals of the institution may be considered corrupt.
31

TABLE 1. Questionnaire on human rights at school
Does your school environment give everyone a chance to enjoy their rights?
Young people and adults can both experience the denial of their rights and freedoms. The list below will enable you
to judge whether the spirit of the Convention on the Rights of the Child is followed in a variety of situations in your
school.
PROVISION
Always
Sometimes
Never
1. Girls and boys have equal access to all subjects
and lessons (Articles 2, 28, 29)
2.Any intelligence or skills tests administered by
the school authorities take account of cultural differences
in minority populations (Articles 2, 28, 29.1 c,30)
3. In the teaching of national history, due weight is given to
women and minorities and to their versions of history
(Articles 2, 13, 28, 29.1 c & d, 30).
4 . Resources for sport (including equipment, activities,
times of use) are equally accessible to girls and to boys
(Articles 2, 28, 31).
5 . Extra-curricular activities organised by the school are
available to all regardless of ability to pay (Articles 2, 28, 31).
6. The school is accessible to people with disabilities
(Articles 2, 23, 28).
7. The curriculum is organized so that students may opt
out of religious education and this possibility is made
known (Article 14).
PROTECTION
8. People are careful not to cause physical harm
(articles 19, 28.2). For example: (a) adults are not
allowed to hit young people; (b) young people are
not allowed to hit adults; (c) young people are
not allowed to hit each other.
9. Students’ lockers are considered to be private property
(Article 16).
10.Any personal files on a student kept by the school can
be inspected by the student whose file it is and the
parents, if appropriate. The file can be checked and
corrected if necessary (Articles 5, 16, 17, 18).
11.The contents of any files, whether personal or vocational
may not be communicated to a third party without the
permission of the student and her or his parents if
appropriate (Articles 15, 16, 18).
12.Any person receiving information from a school file
accepts that they are bound by confidentiality (Article 16).
13.No posters, images or drawings of a racist, sexist or
discriminatory kind may be displayed anywhere on
school premises (Articles 2, 17, 29.1b, c, d)
.
14.People encourage each other to be tolerant, particularly
of those who appear different (Article 29).
15.When there is an incident that may lead to the exclusion
of a student or disciplinary action, an impartial hearing is
organized. In other words, all those involved get a
hearing (Articles 28.2, 40).
16.A student accused of breaking the rules is presumed
innocent until proven guilty and carries on with classes
(Articles 28.2, 40).
17.Where a student has infringed someone’s rights—student
or adult—reparation is expected (Articles 2, 19).
32

18.Adults infringing on students’rights are also expected to
make reparations (Articles 2, 19).
PARTICIPATION
19.In their schoolwork, students have the freedom to express
their own political views or other opinions, regardless of the
opinions of the teacher (Articles12, 13, 14, 17).
20.The student newspaper is treated like any other publication
and is not censored in any way (Article 13).
21. Young people have created or can create an independent
students’union, recognized by the school authorities as
representing all students in the school (Article 15).
22. Young people have as much right to respect as adults
(Articles 12, 19, 29.1c).
23.Students and adults (including parents, teachers and
administrative staff) are consulted about the quality of
teaching in the school (Articles 5, 12, 18).
References
OFSTED 1996. Exclusions from secondary schools 1995/96.
Debarbieux, E. 2001. Scientists, politicians and violence. In:
London: OFSTED.
Derbarbieux, E.; Blaya, C., eds. Violence in schools: ten
Osler, A.; Starkey, H. 1996. Teacher education and human
approaches in Europe. Issy-les-Moulineaux, France: ESF.
rights. London: David Fulton.
Department for International Development 2000. To w a rd s
——. 2001. Legal perspectives on values, culture and educa-
responsive schools. London: DfID.
tion: human rights, responsibilities and values in education,
Graham, J.; Bowling, B. 1995. Young people and crime.
In: Cairns J.; Lawson D.; Gardner R., eds. Values, culture
London: Home Office.
and education: world yearbook of education 2001.
Gulbenkian Foundation. 1995. Children and violence. London:
London: Kogan Page.
Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation.
Osler, A.; Watling, R.; Busher, H. 2001. Reasons for exclusion
H a r b e r, C. 1989. Politics in African education. London:
f rom sch o o l. London: Department for Education and
Macmillan.
Employment.
Harber, C. 1997. International developments and the rise of
Prunier, G. 1995. The Rwanda Crisis of 1959-1994: history of
education for democracy, Compare (Abingdon, UK),vol.
genocide. London: Hurst and Company.
27, no. 2, p. 179–91.
Retamal, G.; Aedo-Richmond, R., eds. 1998. Education as a
Home Office 1999. Stephen Lawrence inquiry: Home
humanitarian response. London: Cassell.
Secretary’s action plan. London: Home Office.
Richardson, R.; Wood, A. 1999. Inclusive schools, inclusive
Macpherson, W., et al. 1999. The Stephen Lawrence inquiry.
society: race and identity on the agenda. Stoke on Trent,
London: The Stationery Office.
UK: Trentham.
McVeigh, T. 2001. Tragic suicide for a boy aged 10. The
UNICEF 1996. The state of the world’s children. Oxford, UK:
Observer (London), 10 June, p. 10.
Oxford University Press.
Meighan, R. 1994. The freethinker’s guide to the educational
Woodward, W. 2000. Learning united, Education guardian
universe. Nottingham, UK: Educational Heretics Press.
(London), 19 December
33

Curriculum and languages: teaching in African
languages and learning strategies
Jens Naumann
I. INTRODUCTION
multilateral and bilateral donor agencies (or at least,
minority undercurrents within them), and is in line
I think that it is useful to note some salient global trends
with the ideology of (individual and collective )
in a twenty- to thirty-year perspective with regard to
human rights, it is likely to continue.
language policies in general and more specifically to
The Jomtien World Conference on Education for All
issues of language(s) of instruction, language teaching,
(1990) led to a variety of efforts to boost activities and
and language learning in formal and informal
measures to improve and expand formal and informal
educational settings:
basic/primary education. Special emphasis was placed

Over the last twenty to thirty years, linguistics as an
on the improved participation and performance of
academic discipline has made great advances in
previously neglected social groups (such as the (very)
overcoming its traditional focus on Indo-European
p o o r, among them girls and women), which often
languages (with its very often pronounced racialist
represent—as a national aggregate—not only a
assumptions and conclusions).
substantial minority, but sometimes the (large) majority

All of the industrialized, rich, ‘Western’ countries
of the populations. The linguistic characteristics of these
have considerably changed their language policy and
marginalized social groups are usually neither discussed
philosophy during the last thirty years, moving away
nor analysed.
from the conception of rigid national linguistic
This has—although mostly covertly and indirectly—
homogeneity to a more-or-less pronounced
a ffected and enhanced the analytical and political
acceptance of multi-cultural (multi-linguistic)
prominence of the old problems of language learning and
openness and plurality, accompanied by conscious
teaching, i.e. the acquisition of comprehension and
educational strategies of ‘building linguistic bridges’.
speaking, of reading and writing skills in both the

The disintegration of the Soviet bloc has usually
African mother-tongue and in African vehicular and/or
implied the revival of competing linguistic, religious,
official (mostly European) languages. I am not aware of
ethnic-cultural plurality in the countries affected,
the existence of recent professional and systematic
leading in some cases to disastrous attempts at
accounts and appraisals in an international comparative
culturally, linguistically, ethnically homogenized and
perspective of efforts to enhance ‘teaching in African
purified ‘nation-building’.
languages’ or ‘learning language skills with the back-

In the countries of the South, most of which obtained
ground of an African mother-tongue’.
their ‘political independence’ during the last twenty
During the last ten years, UNICEF, UNDP, WHO
to forty years, the linguistic reality was and is
a n d — very importantly—the World Bank (as the
characterized by the co-existence of an official (most-
consortial leader of bi- and multilateral efforts in the
ly European) language alongside local lan-
field of formal and informal ‘education sector projects’)
guages. The co-existing language is often spoken as a
have initiated or supported a wide variety of national
mother-tongue by a (tiny) minority of the inhab-
African educational efforts, which directly or indirectly
itants and yet it is the dominant if not the sole lan-
fostered the use of African languages (mostly, in non-
guage used in teaching. Nevertheless, important
formal literacy and adult education). In addition, the
minorities if not the vast majority of the inhabitants
World Bank and a number of bilateral donors have
use the widespread indigenous vehicular languages
sponsored about thirty large-scale empirical surveys of
and dozens (if not hundreds) of local languages, but
educational achievement/proficiency in formal primary
these languages play a limited or no role at all in
education, which did not, however, study in sufficient
(formal) education. So far, efforts to change this
detail the relevance of the ‘language of origin’ of the
situation radically and fast in favour of substantially
learners. The same holds true for World Bank studies on
enhancing the role of (some, the most important)
p ove r t y. No up-to-date comprehensive comparative
local and/or vehicular languages in education have
accounts and assessments with an analytical focus on the
been rare and usually unsuccessful.
relationship between African languages spoken at home

H ow eve r, a slowly working trend towards the
and African or non-African languages used, taught and
step-wise acceptance of the legitimacy, rationality,
learned in educational settings seem to be available.1
desirability and practicability of a strengthened use of
vehicular and local languages in public life and in
formal and informal education is clearly discernible.
Because this trend is supported by NGOs and some
34

II. SCHOOL ACHIEVEMENT AND PROFICIENCY
Thus, pupils naturally growing up with the ‘official
language’ as their first or second language at home,
Ever since, some thirty years ago, the beginning of inter-
which is used exclusively or dominantly in education,
nationally comparable, large-scale, empirical surveys on
should have a structural advantage in comparison to the
school achievement and proficiency, which most of the
rest of their peers (no matter, whether the offi c i a l
time focus on language skills and arithmetic, the results
language is French, English, Portuguese, Kiswaheli,
have suggested that the average achievement level/level
Malgache, etc.). The next less-advantaged group should
of proficiency of pupils in developing countries was very
include all those pupils who happen to speak indigenous
much lower than the average level of their peers in the
vehicular languages as their first language (L1) at home,
r e s p e c t ive primary or secondary grades in the
as long as most teachers know and use (officially or
industrialized (Western) countries of the North. Today,
unofficially) this language to communicate with most of
after a number of research cycles with dozens of
their pupils socially and academically. This category
additional Third World nations joining the few cases of
would most likely be followed by all those pupils who
the earlier studies, this is a well-proven fact.
grow up in a familiar and communal environment where
The main reason for this structural achievement gap
they ‘naturally’ learn as L1 a small, local language, but
appears to be the fact that in the northern industrialized
they learn, as second or third language (L2, L3), the
countries—after 100 to 200 years of traditional
vehicular (African) language used (if only informally) by
nationalism and the extension of ‘modern education’—
their teachers. And, finally, should come those learners
the language of instruction is the same as the language
who naturally learn one or more language as L1, L2,
spoken at home by a dominant proportion of the pupils.
which are neither official, nor vehicular and thus play
In contrast to that situation, in most countries of the ‘rest
(virtually) no role in the educational process.
of the world’, the normal situation is the opposite: the
co-existence of dozens, if not hundreds, of different
III. OFFICIAL LANGUAGE VERSUS
languages together with one or more vehicular languages
HOME LANGUAGE
(indigenous and/or the language of the respective
European colonial power). For practical reasons, the
Schematically, Tables 1 to 5 illustrate the relationship
language(s) of instruction have to be confined to a single
between the languages of the learners spoken at home,
(or a few) vehicular language(s). These languages are
language(s) of instruction/official language(s) and estab-
often confined to, mostly including, the European (ex-
lished indicators of school system performance.2
colonial) ‘official language’. This, however, means that
It should be noted that—so far—the differentiation of
the language of instruction and learning is only for a
achievement/proficiency level by language of instruction
(very) small proportion of the pupils identical with their
and background of dominant language(s) spoken at
strong language, their mother-tongue, while for the
home is not at all customary (professional) practice,
majority the ‘official (often European) language’ (and
neither in countries using French, Portuguese or Spanish,
other African vehicular languages) are foreign
nor in those with an English colonial past.
languages. These languages are very often not used in the
What seem to be the important psycho—and
natural linguistic environment of the family or local
didactical—linguistic reasons for the noted differences
community.
TABLE 1. Official (mostly European) language as language of instruction and dominant language(s) spoken at home
of the illiterate learner
I
II
L1 (or at least ‘strong L2’) = Official language
L1 (L2 or L3)= Non-vehicular (African)
language(s)
The illiterate learner is a ‘competent speaker.’ He/she
The illiterate learner can initially neither ‘passive l y ’
understands not only other speakers of the same language
understand, nor ‘actively’ create verbal utterances in the
on the basis of his/her familiarity with the typical sounds
language of instruction. Some phonemes of the language of
and intonations of the language (‘phonemes’), the meaning
instruction may be identical or similar to those of the
of various combinations of sounds into words (‘lexemes’),
mother tongue of the illiterate learner, but many phonemes
and—using basic grammatical rules—the combination of
may be different (and, perhaps, dif ficult to replicate).
words into meaningful sentences, but he/she can also
The illiterate learner has practically no familiarity
actively and autonomously create comprehensible verbal
with the meaning of words (no knowledge of lexemes or of
utterances. In range and complexity these are always
lexicon) and no knowledge of grammatical rules.
smaller than his/her listening comprehension, but still
The illiterate learner has no oral proficiency in the
relatively large.
language of instruction. He does not understand most of the
The illiterate learner has a high oral proficiency in
verbal utterances of the teacher in the language of
the language of instruction. He has no difficulties in
instruction and his lexicon of the language of instruction is
understanding the verbal utterances of the teacher in the
extremely limited. Moreove r, he does not know the
language of instruction, in using and expanding his lexicon,
grammatical rules, and he has difficulties in imitating or
in using grammatical rules, and in performing language
replicating phonemes, lexemes, and drills (without
drills.
comprehension of the implies pragmatical meaning).
35

in learning results? In the following, I shall characterize
IV. STEPS IN ‘LEARNING TO READ’
some aspects of the stepwise teaching and learning
strategies to improve language skills of illiterate learners
1. Phonemes and graphemes
(children aged 6 to 8 years or illiterate adults beginning
primary or basic education with the aim of attaining
The graphical signs used to represent spoken languages
literacy and numeracy). I shall contrast important aspects
are, to a large extent, identical in the sense that
of the sequence of teaching and learning steps or phases
practically the same characters of the Latin alphabet are
for learners whose L1 (or at least ‘strong L2’) also
used for the graphemes of the European language of the
happens to be the language of instruction (typically the
former colonial powers. In addition, the A f r i c a n
o fficial (mostly European) language) with those of
languages, for which a standard transcription has been
learners whose languages spoken at home is neither the
developed in recent decades, also predominately use
official language of instruction nor a vehicular African
characters of the Latin alphabet.
language used informally by many teachers and peers
Sounds and intonations vary somewhat between
(without being a language of instruction). While the
individual European, between individual European and
former learners enjoy a structural advantage with regard
African, and between individual African languages.
to learning results, the latter experience a pronounced
Although (most of) these languages predominately use
d i s a d vantage. Those learners with combinations of
identical characters of the Latin alphabet to construct
African languages spoken at home, including vehicular
their ‘graphemes’ (of individual characters of the
African languages, occupy intermediate positions.
alphabet or combinations thereof), the relationship of
phonemes to graphemes usually differs somewhat, and
sometimes quite substantially from language to
language.
TABLE 2. The relationship between phonemes and graphemes
Learning the relationship between phonemes and
Learning the relationship between phonemes and
graphemes is facilitated by the circumstances that both
graphemes (and lexemes) in the language of instruction is
(sounds and their graphic representation) are easily linked
necessarily very abstract because it is unrelated to a
to known and familiar words (lexemes) and even sentences.
s u fficiently large body of mastered and understood
Establishing, learning, and remembering the hitherto
vocabulary and basic grammatical rules. The learner tries
unknown links between phonemes and graphemes is thus
to ‘memorize’without comprehension.
facilitated by cognitively linking them up to a body of
p a s s ively and actively mastered and remembered oral
proficiency (knowledge of vocabulary and comprehension
of sentences).
TABLE 3. Reading proficiency at a level equal to listening proficiency
With repetition, drills and experience, the deciphering of
Reading profi c i e n cy at a level equal to listening
grapheme, lexemes and sentences comes to a point where
p r o fi c i e n cy is impossible because of a too limited
reading comprehension becomes virtually identical with
knowledge of vocabulary in the language of instruction and
the comparatively high level of listening/oral comprehen-
an insufficient mastery of its grammatical rules. There is
sion. This is possible because of the fairly extensive
limited memorizing without comprehension.
vocabulary known and the mastery of basic grammatical
rules.
TABLE 4. Literacy and numeracy
The illiterate beginning learner (but fairly competent
The gap between the actual and the expected ‘normal’level
speaker) has considerably improved and expanded his lit-
of profi c i e n cy in language and numeracy skills has
eracy and number skills..
widened from grade 1 to grade 4 to the point that the
majority of the learners ha ve dropped out.
36

V. STEPS IN LEARNING TO WRITE
Pupils for whom the official (European) language is
not their L1 or a ‘strong L2’ spoken at home will
Some theoreticians of the stepwise development of
experience—during most of their school career—what is
literacy proficiency hold that the acquisition of writing
shown in Table 5 (from about grade three to at least grade
skills is more complex and demanding than that of the
ten in secondary school, assuming, of course, that they
basic skills to decode graphemes and to correctly relate
do not drop out).
them to phonemes and lexemes as parts of sentences.
It does not matter whether the official European
Others hold that the development of (hand)writing skills
language is also the language of instruction from grade
cannot and should not be separated from the
one on or is taught as a foreign language before
development of reading skills; in other words, that they
becoming the language of instruction some grades later.
do and should go hand-in-hand. One thing is sure and
This situation applies to the large majority of pupils in all
empirically very evident: the illiterate learner (even if an
sub-Saharan African countries.
adult) has to learn the requisite senso-motoric
For all of these pupils it is true that their learning
capabilities of co-ordination for handwriting, because
success of and in the European language could be
they simply are not a function of biological age. Beyond
enhanced and improved if their superior listening and
that, once again, the level of oral language proficiency to
speaking profi c i e n cy in their strong(er) A f r i c a n
start with seems to determine to a large ex t e n t
language(s) could be tapped to support the teaching and
achievement in both the domain of reading and that of
learning of the official European language.
writing.
I suggest that there is a feasible and probably
efficient ‘didactical strategy’, which in most African
VI. LANGUAGE POLICIES
countries has not yet been institutionalized on a large
scale. It would consist of:
Important studies have been realized during that last

The production of dictionaries of about 20,000 to
twenty to thirty years to overcome the traditionalist
40,000 entries per language (African language
Euro-centric and colonialist premises of language
X-Official European language/Official European lan-
policies in general and, more specifically, language
guage-African language X) for all major/national
teaching and learning in formal and informal education.
African languages used in a given country. These
Thus:
books are to be made available to all schools (if

Schoolbooks have been ‘Africanized’ in content and
possible, classes) according to the language mix of
presentation.
their pupils.

A fair number of teaching materials have been

In addition (possibly alternatively), printed
d eveloped for adult literacy in African national
‘ s u p p l e m e n t s ’ in the African national languages
languages.
should be produced for the existing schoolbooks in
the official European language. These ‘supplements’

It is no longer common practice to punish pupils
should contain word lists of the most important
speaking African languages during breaks in the
lexemes used in the respective schoolbook (African
schoolyard.
language X-Official European language of the

It is more and more accepted, in some countries even
schoolbook, and vice versa) and should be
expected, that teachers and pupils use (vehicular)
d i s t r i buted/sold to the pupils according to their
African languages to ask questions or to explain
i n d ividual affinity to the respective national
difficult issues (although the practice of ‘awarding’ a
language.
donkey’s hat to pupils not sufficiently versed in using
Such ‘supplements’ should be produced for all school-
French is not yet extinct in private Senega l e s e
books in print and in use (for all subjects and grades up
schools).
to about grade ten), but priority should be given to books
Yet there remains a lot to be done to strike a new balance
for language and mathematics lessons, particularly for
between the psycho- and socio-linguistic needs to take
the upper classes of the primary level (since these books
account of the large number of dominant A f r i c a n
are the ones most widely distributed/bought and used,
languages spoken at home and the usually European
and the ranks of the pupils are not yet heavily reduced by
language of instruction.
dropping out leaving only those students predominantly
TABLE 5. Pupils for whom the official language is not their L1 or strong L2
their listening comprehension
their listening comprehension
their listening comprehension
and speaking proficiency of their
>

and speaking proficiency of an
and speaking proficiency of the
non-vehicular African L1
African vehicular as their L1 or
European official language as
L
language of instruction on the
2
way to be mastered (or not) as
their L2, L3, or L4
37

belonging to socially and linguistically privileged tiny
political resistance to a transition to the use of national
minorities).
languages for initial literacy is still important. For the
Yet, such a didactical strategy addresses only those
beginning two or three grades of the primary cycle, this
pupils who have already mastered basic literacy by grade
would imply:
three or grade four, i.e. those that have already learned

to accept the continued existence and use of official
how to read fairly well in the European language of
(European) language schoolbooks (and their
instruction (perhaps 20 to 40% of the pupils in these
progression of graphemes/phonemes, grammar; the
grades). They will be able to transfer their knowledge of
same would hold for mathematics books);
the characters of the alphabet and of graphemes

to develop and produce parallel ‘initiating
independently to the lexemes and different phonemes of
schoolbooks’ in the national languages, essentially
their strong African language with very little initial help.
f o l l owing the European-language schoolbook
These stronger students would benefit a lot from this
page-by-page;
type of material for the rest of their school careers; for

trying, and here is the big challenge, to introduce and
the weaker ones, it probably cannot be a late substitute
explain in the national languages, what is supposed to
for initial literacy in their strong language. (It should be
happen in the foreign language. The wo r k i n g
noted that all the arguments presented so far with regard
hypothesis is, of course, that the parallel ‘national
to the problems emerging between a European language
language book’, in tapping the strength of the better
as official language and language of instruction seem to
oral comprehension and speaking profi c i e n cy in
be equally relevant for the cases where an African
‘national languages’, can help the majority of
vehicular language is ‘offi c i a l ’ and serves as the
learners (their family members) and their teachers to
language of instruction, while most pupils do not learn it
better master the challenges of the European
as L1 or strong L2.)
languages.
In spite of the obvious limitations of the
‘ d i c t i o n a r y / s u p p l e m e n t s ’ - s t r a t egy with regard to
Notes
enhancing the learning opportunities of the majority of
primary level beginning pupils and, especially, the
1. The Southern African Consortium for Monitoring
marginalized ‘basic education target groups’, its relative
Educational Quality (SACMEQ) is currently analysing the
a d vantages should be noted: it is politically and
achievement data of large empirical surveys of grade 6
financially ‘cost-eff e c t ive ’ in the sense that the
pupils from fourteen southern African countries (in the first
investment in linguistic-didactical development work
round, some years ago, surveys from seven countries were
analysed). An analysis of the achievement level of the
would produce physically visible results with substantial
pupils by language background is, however, impossible
medium-term achievement results for an important
because the questionnaire did not include relevant items.
minority of students.
L’Institut national d’études et d’action pour le
R egional co-operation between several A f r i c a n
d éveloppement de l’éducation (INEADE), located in
countries could make sure that such a strategy could, in
Dakar, Senegal, has undertaken an empirical study on the
fact, be realised in a comparatively short time (some five
achievement level of pupils in the third, fourth and sixth
to ten years) for a large number or all ‘national
grades in French and mathematics. The study, undertaken
language’-groups in the co-operating countries, thus
in 1996, was called Système national d’évaluation du ren-
reducing the political risk of opposition on the part of
dement scolaire (SNERS). Since no data on the language
background of the pupils had been generated by the study,
linguistic minority groups fearing to be dominated by
a respective statistical analysis was not possible.
stronger groups.
Nevertheless, because of the extremely poor achievements
In spite of possible charges of utopian optimism, I
of the pupils, the final report pleads for the need to switch
would like to conclude by pointing out that the most
to basic literacy in African languages.
promising teaching and learning strategy for literacy
In 1993, the Programme d’analyse des systèmes d’é-
continues to be the idea of first and basic literacy in the
ducation de la CONFEMEN (PASEC) be gan large-scale
strong language of the learners, to be followed by
s u r veys of the primary school systems in countries
learning strategies for additional languages.
participating in the Conférence des ministres de l’éducation
It is, however, neither possible to educate or socialize
ayant en commun l’usage du francais (CONFEMEN). By
the end of the decade, studies had been conducted in nine
all (or even the majority) of the beginning learners into
African countries; mostly a cross section of the somewhat
‘competent speakers’ of the official European language
dated studies published in the 1970s and 1980s.
before teaching them to read and write, nor is it
2. The background of these schematic representations is my
practically feasible to make all (or even, the majority) of
interest and invo l vement in education and language
beginners literate in their mother-tongue, given that
problems in Senegal:
dozens, if not hundreds, of mother-tongues (L1) co-exist

a comparative empirical analysis of language and
in African countries.
mathematical proficiency of pupils in different basic
R e a l i s t i c a l l y, then, we will continue to muddle
educational
settings
(formal
public
schools,
through with hybrid strategies (incidentally, not only in
traditional Koranic schools, modern Arabic schools)
Africa, but also increasingly so in the Northern
and of adult participants in literacy courses: Jens
Naumann & Ulrike Wi egelmann, Analyse pour
countries). Perhaps an adaptation of the ‘supplements’
améliorer: nouvelles recherches sur les défis de l’édu-
strategy is feasible for all those countries, where the
38

cation de base au Sénégal, in: Tertium comparationis.

my familiarity with the Senegalese SNERS, the
( h t t p : / / w w w. waxmann. com/index 2 . h t m l ? z s / t c . h t m l ) ,
(World Bank initiated) evaluation of an
vol. 5, no. 1, 1999, p. 72-97; Ulrike Wiegelmann,
on-going ‘literacy campaign’ in Senegalese national
Alphabetising and Grundbildung in Seneg a l,
languages;
Frankfurt/M.: Iko-Verlag, 1999;

my efforts to mobilize scientific and political support

the re-analysis of PASEC data on Senegalese primary
for the development and production of a Wolof-
education (including the overestimated role in language
French/French-Wolof dictionary with some 35,000
issues played by traditional French language school-
entries for each language aid ‘Supplements for
books): Jens Naumann & Peter Wolf, The performance
of African primary education systems: critique and new
French-language Senegalese schoolbooks’.
analysis of PASEC data for Senegal, Prospects (Paris,
UNESCO), vol. 31, no. 3, 2001;
39

Post-conflict situations:
some useful perspectives from Africa
Mudiappasa Devadoss
I. INTRODUCTION
have contributed in no small measure to the conflict.

There must be community participation and
An interagency team of experts has been meeting since
ownership. Changes must be introduced on the basis
1999 to examine education in situations of emergency
of consultation, involving all stakeholders to the
and crisis. Their findings were subsequently presented at
extent possible. Local capacities in the provision of
the Dakar World Education Forum (2000). The emerging
educational assistance must be used and ownership of
clarity, consensus, concerns, issues and lessons learned
education by affected people must be ensured.
so far can be summarized as follows:

Sustainability is a major concern when developed

The types of emergencies recognized are: conflicts,
countries intervene in complex emergencies. The
natural disasters and silent emergencies, such as
rapid re-establishment of basic education must be
HIV/AIDS. Not only the refugees and internally
undertaken with sustainable salary scales, use of
displaced persons (IDPs), but all aff e c t e d
appropriate technology, low-cost production of
populations, including those in the immediate
teaching/learning materials, ever-increasing levels of
vicinity of refugee and IDP camps, need assistance.
community support and building up the capacity of

Education is increasingly being recognized as an
local education authorities so that everything does
i n t egral part of the humanitarian response to
not come to a grinding halt when foreign assistance
emergencies. A shift has taken place from justifying
stops. Training must go hand-in-hand with other
education in emergencies in terms of ‘normalization’
necessary educational interventions. Eve r y b o d y
and healing traumatized children/teachers to seeing
needs training: teachers, head-teachers, supervisors,
education as a right. How eve r, education in
local communities and educational authorities.
emergencies is under-funded at present and is not

The educational response must cater to the needs of
able to compete for scarce resources with vital
the most vulnerable of the affected populations: girls,
concerns, such as food, shelter and health.
child soldiers and women.

The educational response must be suited to the

Demobilization and the imparting of vocational skills
d i fferent phases of the emerg e n cy (immediate
to young people are urgent priorities and essential
response, reconstruction and subsequent system
components of an educational response to emergen-
development). Intervention must start early (within
cies.
weeks), not as one-time, stop-gap responses but all

Only an estimated 3% of refugees in developing
along the ‘relief-to-development continuum’,
countries have access to secondary education. The
ensuring continuity between emerg e n cy and
importance of access to post-primary education is not
reconstruction/development planning.
generally recognized, and there is a need for

The educational responses must use appropriate
advocacy on a global level to convince donor nations
delivery methods. The ‘Teacher Emergency Package’
of the importance of post-primary education.
(TEP) and other education kits are often referred to as

Certifying the achievement of those studying under
a ‘school-in-box’ because they contain all the
d i fficult circumstances is an urgent priority and
supplies for a teacher and a class of forty or fifty
should be addressed through inter- a g e n cy and
students. T h ey can be used even where school
inter-governmental co-operation.
buildings do not exist. They have been put together

Alongside emergency response, emphasis must also
by UNESCO’s Programme of Education for
be placed on emergency preparedness (foreseeing
Emergencies and Reconstruction (PEER), UNICEF,
risks and being prepared) and prevention. Peace
and other agencies and can be sent within weeks to
education and civic education have a role to play in
where they are needed. While this makes for a rapid
emergency response, as well as in the prevention of
response, local or regional procurement/assembling
emergencies.
of these kits is to be encouraged in order to keep

There should be supplementary/complementary
intact the existing supply lines and keep in business
curriculum materials for education in emergency and
suppliers who may ensure continuity of educational
crisis. In the changed circumstances after a conflict
materials once the emergency is over.
or war, formal education must not be resumed as if

Emergencies lead not only to the collapse of the
nothing had happened. Often there is a need for
education system, but also present an opportunity for
inputs in the areas of health education, mine
renovation, reform and innovation insofar as the edu-
awareness,
peace
education,
env i r o n m e n t a l
cation system itself at times has been unjust and may
education, etc. Affected populations need skills in
40

survival, psycho-social development, employability,
etc.
Generic
supplementary/complementary
The United Nations General Assembly proclaimed the
curriculum materials in all these areas are needed.
year 2000 as the International Year for a Culture of Peace
Annotated lists of available materials and
( fifty-second session, resolution 52/15). By another
information as to where these could be ordered from
measure (fifty-third session, resolution 53/25), it also
must be available. Also needed are international and
declared the period from 2001 to 2010 as the
national experts who can be deployed at short notice
International Decade for a Culture of Peace and Non-
to adapt these materials for use in specific contexts.
violence for the Children of the World.

While skills needed by the affected populations have
Since its inception in 1993, the UNESCO-PEER
to form part of the curriculum, the real danger of
programme has been engaged in action for education and
overloading the curriculum must not be ignored. The
peace building in the conflict-impacted countries of the
child has a right to childhood; therefore, bringing the
Horn of Africa and the Great Lakes regions. It has
various elements needed into a well-integ r a t e d ,
squarely faced the problem of social cohesion, and its
manageable and child-friendly curricular package is
experiences may be useful with respect to approaches
necessary. For example, a lot of learning to live
and principles, means, activities and lessons learned.
together can take place as part of physical education.
UNESCO-PEER, in all its curriculum development
1. Peace education
projects, provides for an interaction between
curriculum and textbook developers and a group of
All forms of education, particularly formal education and
monitors for cross-cutting issues, such as gender,
the opportunities it provides to individuals to realize their
e nvironment, mine awareness, health, water and
full potential, contribute to peace. An unjust educa-
sanitation, peace education, etc. This ensures a
tion system and unfair distribution of educational oppor-
coherent development of relevant themes right
tunities lead to disaffection.
through the school curriculum.
Related to education for peace, but quite distinct from

E ven during the emerg e n cy phase, norms and
it, is peace education which seeks specifically to promote
standards should be maintained (e.g. classroom size,
knowledge, skills, attitudes and values needed to bring
furniture, etc.). If we go beyond the minimum
about behavioural changes that will enable children,
standards, there is the concept of child-friendly
youth and adults to prevent conflict and violence,
spaces promoted by UNICEF and its partner NGOs,
both overt and structural. UNESCO-PEER’s PEP (Peace
which provides for a play area, a well-baby area, a
Education Programme), which in its Somali, Arabic and
water point, and a small ‘adult’ area in addition to
French versions has been used in several African coun-
classrooms.
tries, teaches students to resolve peacefully conflicts that

Refugees can be resettled in the country of refuge, a
arise and to create conditions conducive to peace at the
third country or be repatriated back to their country
intra-personal, inter-personal, inter-group, national and
of origin. While not foreclosing any of these options,
international levels.
preference should always be for vo l u n t a r y
In Somalia, under President Siad Barre the slogan
repatriation to the home country. Adoption of the
‘ Tribalism divides; Socialism unites’ was used to
medium of instruction (language of study), the
promote unity and national integration. The attempt
curriculum, textbooks, assessment and certification
failed because denying differences (confusing a strong
of the country of origin serves as a strong pull factor
clan identity with tribalism) is no way of promoting unity
and, wherever possible, education for repatriation
and social cohesion. The peace education that UNESCO
(education that facilitates rather than hinders
and its partners advocate teaches pupils to live together
repatriation) should be promoted by adopting a cross-
despite their differences by owning them and accepting
border approach to the provision of education.
the tensions inherent in their society. A strong identity

Building fi e l d - l evel partnerships is of high
(knowing who one is) is a help and not a hindrance for
importance. More often than not, in the aftermath of
accepting the otherness of others and valuing interde-
an emergency, national, regional or local education
pendence, which makes the world of today a global vil-
authorities lack the basic human, financial and
lage, where networking, mobility and multi-culturalism
organizational requirements for re-establishing the
are the very means of survival and progress of peoples.
education system. The Jomtien World Conference on
The lessons learned by PEER and its partners in
Education For All (1990) emphasized the need for
implementing peace education are the following:
‘ n ew and revitalized partnerships at all leve l s .’

With respect to peace education, there is a need for
Co-ordination (inter-agency collaboration as opposed
both a formal education component and a
to competition) is essential and should be ensured in
community component, which should active l y
the development of materials, manuals, etc.
reinforce each other.

Education is important for reconciliation and peace

Attitudes are to be developed from the ‘entering
building. At times, dialogue on educational issues
b e h av i o u r ’ of the participants (both school and
could be the starting point for a more comprehensive
community).
dialogue on the political plane.

Elements of peace education are to be introduced in
II. THE PROBLEM OF SOCIAL COHESION
an intrinsic way into the schooling system, which is
41

very formal in many countries.
As a means of promoting social cohesion, since 1998

Despite the difficulty of introducing peace education
UNESCO-PEER has been running a civic education pro-
in the lower grades, there is a need for it to be
gramme in Somalia. It has established ten peace resource
adapted for different age-groups in a graded fashion
centres (PRCs) across Somalia, which serve about 180
and provided at all levels. In this connection, each
community groups at the grassroots level. T h e
individual activity must be carefully examined as it
community groups have established a cross-zonal or
relates to the target audience.
r egional
communication
network
where
they

There is a need to develop materials on conflict trans-
communicate through the PRCs and share their positive
formation and peace building that would make the
experiences in local peace promotion, culture-of-peace
teachers realise the need to talk about their own
activities, etc. The PRCs assist the community groups to
conflicts before they are able to instruct the pupils.
share peace materials and initiatives happening in their

While drawing inspiration from the best peace
respective localities with other PRCs and community
education practices of other countries and cultural
groups in other localities. The project produces two
contexts, it is also advisable to take note of and use
issue-based radio programmes. So far, 200 radio soap-
mechanisms for righting wrongs and restoring peace
opera and 200 radio magazine programmes have been
that are available within the community itself.
produced, aired on several radios (including the BBC),

Opportunities must be provided for children to put
and are made available on tapes for listening and
p e a c e - building into practice both in and out of
discussion by groups at their convenience. The soap-
school.
opera dramatizes issues identified by the community

On-going training in this area must be made available
groups and presents them in a manner that is both
to teachers.
educational as well as entertaining, while the radio
While a concentrated dose of peace education is a
magazine presents the real voices of the grassroots
desirable component of education for emerg e n c i e s ,
people in different parts of Somalia. A printed monthly
peace education should also be an integral part of
magazine summarizes and presents in a concise format
quality basic education. In most countries, school syllabi
the episodes of the soap-opera and, in each issue, six
feature objectives in the domain of social relations.
pages are devoted to the local community groups in order
Concepts, such as human rights, social justice, equality,
to share their ideas and experiences. The project orga-
co-operation, partnership, team spirit, tolerance of diver-
nizes quarterly workshops that bring together all project
sity, mutual respect, social service, integration, etc., are
staff. To enhance the interaction and integration of
included, but no provision is made for curriculum
Somali people, these workshops are scrupulously rotated
developers working together to integrate these concepts
around the country. Furthermore, the PRCs offer quarter-
in different subjects in a coherent fashion. Added to that,
ly training to collaborating community groups, covering
no training in this regard is given to teachers.
such themes as a culture of peace, human rights, com-
If truth and reconciliation are needed for re-building
munity and resource mobilization, community
society in post-conflict situations, school tex t b o o k s
participation, a community information system, com-
cannot obscure, much less deliberately hide, unpleasant
munity radio and media pluralism, networking
matters or unfortunate happenings, particularly in recent
for development, data collection, etc.
history.
UNESCO-PEER has learned the following lessons
In many countries, there is a need for revising school
from its civic education programme:
textbooks. During the 161st session of the UNESCO

Radio can be a very effective means to inform and
Executive Board, the Director-General of UNESCO,
educate people.
Koïchiro Matsuura, announced the Orga n i z a t i o n ’s

There is a great potential for the grassroots local
support for a joint revision of Israeli and Palestinian
communities to participate and contribute to bottom-
school textbooks, which was accepted by both parties.
up peace promotion and national integration.
UNESCO announced that it was prepared to provide the

Grassroots community groups are capable of giving
framework for this initiative.
in-depth and critical analysis of interve n t i o n s
In addition to such specific interventions, the school
affecting their lives, provided that they are given the
itself should be a zone of peace and safety. T h e
opportunity to do so.
curriculum and the hidden curriculum must promote

There are many civil society groups emerging in
co-operation and ‘esprit de corps’ rather than
Africa, and there is a potential for establishing close
competition in the classrooms as well as in the
linkages among them.
playgrounds. Teaching/learning methods that promote

People-driven interventions can work better and have
participatory and child-centred learning, co-operation
a more positive impact than programmes conceived
and problem-solving should be adopted in place of the
and executed by outside experts. The civic education
traditional ‘chalk-and-talk’method widely used in class-
project started with participatory research identifying
rooms in many parts of the world.
what the people wanted to hear, and that helped to
establish a close linkage with the grassroots local
community groups, traditional leaders and local
2. Civic education
administrative structures.
42


When people see that their views are taken into
III. CONCLUSION
consideration, they tend to be very co-operative and
supportive. The project’s radio programmes depend
‘Since wars begin in the minds of men, it is in the minds
heavily on feedback from local community groups
of men that the defences of peace must be constructed.’
and the programmes take into consideration the
This conviction, expressed in UNESCO’s Constitution,
p e o p l e ’s views. Hence, community groups send
has led the organization to build peace through
regular feedback on a voluntary basis. Community-
education, science, culture and communication. The
based training of trainers can have a multiplier effect
mission of the organization, challenging as it was in the
where each community member trained can train
post-Second World War years, has become more focused
others. Alongside peace initiatives on the political
than ever before at the dawn of the new millennium.
front, people-driven peace interventions work really
Creating and maintaining social cohesion has become
well and, consequently, there is a need to empower
more of a challenge in a world characterized by
groups and encourage them to build peace using
globalization on the one hand, but ripped apart because
indigenous practices of conflict preve n t i o n /
of real or perceived injustices leading to civil strife,
management/transformation.
ethnic and religious conflicts, and social disintegration.
Peace itself is no longer negatively defined as ‘the
Building on the four pillars of education—learning to be,
absence of conflict, war and violence’. Promotion of a
learning to know, learning to do and learning to live
culture of peace encompasses a whole range of issues,
together—UNESCO urges all societies to renounce war
including the rule of law, justice, good governance,
and violence and move towards a utopia in which none
human rights, democracy, solidarity, reconciliation,
of the talents that lie buried in every person like a hidden
gender equality, protection of the environment, etc.
treasure are left untapped.
43

PART IV:
NATIONAL REPORTS
PARTIE IV :
RAPPORTS NATIONAUX

Guidelines (see Annex II) were provided to the participants on how to prepare their country presentations around the
following main issues: (i) problems of the national education system affecting the school system in general and those
related to curricula; (ii) solutions to the problems concerning the education system and the curriculum; (iii) history,
basic characteristics, and analysis of the text of the current reform, and the linkages between curriculum reform and
curriculum development. The countries that participated in this seminar were Burundi, Comoros, Democratic Republic
of Congo, Eritrea (did not submit a written presentation), Ethiopia, Kenya, Mauritius, Nigeria, Rwanda, Seychelles and
Somalia. More information on the educational profiles of each of these countries can be found on the IBE website:
http:/www.ibe.unesco.org
1. Burundi1
compétence de certains d’entre eux ne reposent que sur
leur expérience d’enseignement. La plupart n’ont pas
l’opportunité d’avoir une formation en cours d’emploi
I. LES PROBLÈMES DU SYSTÈME ÉDUCATIF
dans le domaine de l’élaboration des curricula. Le
problème de qualification des conseillers pédagogiques
Il y a beaucoup de points communs aux problèmes
est encore plus grave pour l’enseignement technique.
rencontrés dans les différents systèmes éducatifs des
L’enseignement technique ne dispose pas d’une structure
pays d’Afrique subsaharienne. Les problèmes que
d’inspection. Faute de ressources humaines, matérielles
connaît le système éducatif du Burundi se présentent
et financières, le suivi des programmes sur le terrain est
généralement comme une confirmation de cette donnée.
irrégulier.
Néanmoins, force est d’indiquer que la crise socio-poli-
Ces problèmes ont été aggravés par la crise qu’a
tique qu’a connu ce pays en 1993 a aggravé ou provoqué
connue le pays en 1993. La suspension de la coopération
certains de ses problèmes éducatifs. D’une fa ç o n
internationale conséquente à cette crise a affecté le
générale, parmi les problèmes de l’éducation au Burundi,
d éveloppement des curricula et la production de
on peut citer la baisse des performances, le fa i b l e
matériels pédagogiques. Les perturbations de la sécurité,
d éveloppement
de
l’enseignement
technique,
la destruction de matériels didactiques, des équipements
l’insuffisance des infrastructures, le tâtonnement de la
et des supports pédagogiques, l’exil intérieur ou
politique de formation de formateurs, l’absence d’une
extérieur du personnel enseignant ont entraîné une non
politique consistante de formation continue des
couverture des programmes et un cumul de retards chez
enseignants en cours d’emploi, le caractère socialement
les élèves dans l’accomplissement de la scolarité et la
défavorisé de la carrière enseignante, la faiblesse du
maîtrise des programmes.
niveau de planification, le caractère limité et inégal de
l’accès à l’éducation.
II. LES SOLUTIONS OU LES TENTATIVES DES
En effet, le taux de réussite au Burundi est faible.
SOLUTIONS AUX PROBLÈMES.
L’enseignement technique, peu développé, est concentré
dans les centres urbains (Bujumbura et Gitega). Le taux
Face à ces problèmes, le Gouvernement a pris des
d’occupation des salles de classe est très élevé. Au pri-
mesures qui peuvent être regroupées de la fa ç o n
maire, il était de 65 élèves par classe en 1995-96 et de 60
s u ivante. Une première série de mesures vise
élèves par classe en 1996-97. Au secondaire, on compte
l’implication des collectivités locales dans la mise en
de 45 à 100 élèves par classe dans le premier cycle et de
place des infrastructures scolaires et l’appui aux
35 à 80 dans le second cycle.
infrastructures des collèges communaux, la mobilisation
Les enseignants actifs ont tendance à déserter
des responsables scolaires pour des campagnes de
l’enseignement pour d’autres secteurs plus attrayants,
scolarisation. Une autre catégorie de mesures vise la
tandis que les jeunes ne sont plus attirés par
création de structures déconcentrées pour l’encadrement
l’enseignement. Pour pallier cela, on assiste à un
administratif et pédagogique des écoles, la formation des
recrutement de personnes non qualifiées. Par exemple,
inspecteurs et des conseillers pédagogiques, surtout de
dans le primaire 2000 enseignants sur 12000 sont non
l’enseignement technique, la formation des enseignants,
qualifiées. Dans le premier cycle du secondaire, 2/3 des
l’ouverture d’une école normale supérieur de formation
enseignants étaient non qualifiés en 1997. Au primaire, le
accélérée des enseignants du secondaire (1999),
taux brut de scolarisation étaient 70 % (45 % de filles)
l’institution d’une agrégation postlicence pour les
avant 1992. Il est tombé à 43 % en 1995. En 2001, il est
enseignants du secondaire, le démarrage d’un
à 68,7 %, au primaire, 7,2 % dont 26 % de filles au
programme de formation qualifiante des enseignants non
secondaire, et de 0,8 % au supérieur. Le taux
qualifiés du primaire (1998), la création de centres pour
d’alphabétisation des adultes est 34 % dont 26 % pour les
l’évaluation ou pour la maintenance et la production de
femmes.
matériel didactique. Une autre série de mesures vise à
Par rapport aux curricula, il convient de signaler que
encourager les enseignants par l’amélioration de leur
les concepteurs et les gestionnaires des programmes,
condition de vie et de travail. La prime d’enseignement a
c’est-à-dire les conseillers pédagogiques, ne répondent
été augmentée, une politique d’accès au crédit logement
pas à un profil précis de formation initiale. La
pour le personnel enseignant a été mise en œuvre. La
45

dernière série de mesures porte directement sur le con-
matique et à l’introduction de l’éducation à la vie famil-
tenu de l’enseignement. Un programme d’éducation à la
iale et en matière de population dans les cours qui s’y
paix a été initié dans l’enseignement primaire. Il
prêtent. Il a aussi permis un réaménagement des horaires
s’intitule « Projet Bâtissons la Paix de l’UNICEF ». Pour
et un renforcement des inspections et des bureaux péda-
le secondaire, a été élaboré un programme de civisme
gogiques en moyens logistiques et humains.
intégrant l’éducation à la paix, aux droits de l’homme, à
Les changements intervenus depuis 1989 justifient le
la démocratie, les problèmes de l ’environnement, de
colloque qui se prépare. A partir d’une analyse critique
lutte contre le SIDA et d’égalité des genres.
des programmes en vigueur, ce colloque va viser à
proposer un nouvel aménagement des programmes. Il va
III. LES RÉFORMES
permettre de mettre un accent particulier sur l’éducation
à la paix, aux droits de l’homme, à la démocratie, à la
Le système éducatif du Burundi a connu une réforme
protection de l’environnement, à la lutte contre le SIDA,
fondamentale en 1973. Celle-ci a été suivie d’un
à l’égalité des genres, à la santé et à la reproduction, aux
colloque sur les programmes d’enseignement du
n o u velles technologies de l’information et de la
primaire et du secondaire en 1989 qui aura permis de
communication.
réorganiser les orientations de la réforme de 1973. Un
autre colloque est en cours de préparation. Son objectif
est d’apporter des ajustements aux programmes issus du
2. Comores1
colloque de 1989.
La réforme de 1973 était caractérisée par les idées
I. LES PROBLÈMES DU SYSTÈME EDUCATIF
directrices suivantes : la ruralisation de l’enseignement
primaire (adoption du kirundi, langue maternelle comme
Les problèmes de l’éducation aux Comores concernent
langue d’enseignement durant tout le cycle, c’est-à-dire
l’accueil des élèves, la formation des maîtres,
pendant 6 ans, introduction du français comme langue
l ’ i n s u ffisance des inspections, du contrôle et de
enseignée à partir de la 3è année et comme langue
l’encadrement pédagogique, les fournitures scolaires et
d’enseignement à partir de la 5è année ; familiarisation
les manuels scolaires, l’exécution des programmes
avec les travaux agricoles et la vie des communautés
scolaires, le rendement scolaire et les structures d’accueil
rurales) ; la diversification et la professionnalisation de
postbaccalauréat.
l’enseignement secondaire, mise en place de
Aux Comores, l’école coranique et l’école officielle
l’enseignement universitaire à travers les instituts
cohabitent. La première est une institution entièrement
spécialisés. Cette réforme a été accompagnée par des
autonome. Elle est une initiative du maître qui fixe
organes suivants : le bureau d’éducation rurale (BER), la
lui-même son organisation en dehors de toute hiérarchie.
régie des productions pédagogiques (RPP), la coopéra-
Celui-ci ne reçoit aucune formation préalable, il enseigne
tive des parents d’élèves, les écoles de formation des
selon son programme et n’est soumis à aucun contrôle.
instituteurs (EFI).
L’école officielle est une institution inspirée du modèle
Le colloque de 1989 a permis de faire un examen
français, placée sous la tutelle du Ministère de
critique de la réforme de 1973. Il a permis par exemple
l’éducation nationale à l’exception du préscolaire qui est
de constater que la double vacation pose des problèmes
à ce jour entièrement communautaire et privé. Il n’ex-
d’encadrement, de surcharge des enseignants, de baisse
iste aucune continuité dans la formation entre ces deux
des heures de cours, des difficultés liées à la
institutions. L’école officielle semble ignorer le contenu
« kirundisation », à l’usage du français comme langue
des enseignements de l’école coranique et ne prend pas
d’enseignement à partir de la 5è année. Il a conduit par
en compte les prérequis de ce niveau d’enseignement.
exemple à proposer pour le cours primaire, une nouvelle
L’avènement de la démocratie au début des années
grille horaire de cours, l’introduction du français dès le
1990 a bouleversé le système d’enseignement sur le plan
2è trimestre de la première année, celle de la lecture et de
organisationnel et pédagogique. Les grèves répétées des
l’écriture du français dès la 2è année, à favoriser chez les
enseignants ont conduit à des années scolaires non
enseignants l’initiative de la fabrication de matériel
valides (1990, 1992, 1994, 1998). Les changements
didactique, à la mise en place d’une structure
fréquents perpétrés à la tête du Ministère de l’éducation
d’évaluation de la ruralisation et de la kirundisation. Pour
(en l’espace de 10 ans, 14 ministres et 4 secrétaires
l’enseignement secondaire il a conduit au ren-
généraux se sont succédés dans ce Ministère) n’ont pas
forcement de l’enseignement du français, à l’élab-
permis d’engager et de faire aboutir les réformes du
oration des manuels qui tiennent compte des acquis lex-
système éducatif envisagé.
icaux des élèves, à la dotation des écoles en lab-
L’ i n s u ffisance des locaux, malgré l’utilisation
oratoires et en matériels scientifiques en vue de ren -
optimale de ces derniers (double, parfois triple vacation,
dre l’enseignement scientifique plus pratique, au ren-
classe multigrade), fait qu’environ 25 % des enfants en
forcement des cours de technologie et d’agriculture, à la
âge d’être scolarisés n’ont pas accès à l’école. Le nom-
mise en place des structures de récupération des perdi-
bre d’élèves par maître est d’environ 40. On observe un
tions constatées, à la création d’urgence d’une section
départ massif des enseignants vers d’autres secteurs de
commerciale et d’une section d’opérateurs informa-
l’administration et un manque des structures d’accueil
tiques, à la généralisation de l’apprentissage de l’infor-
dans l’institut qui assure la formation des maîtres.
46

Au niveau du secondaire, les enseignants ont le
SOLUTIONS
diplôme requis mais n’ont pas reçu de formation
pédagogique préalable.
La réforme du système éducatif en cours de préparation
Au manque de ressources humaines s’ajoute le
se propose d’intégrer l’institution coranique et l’école
manque chronique des moyens de travail. On enregistre
officielle. Les mesures sont prises pour l’amélioration
en moyenne deux rapports d’inspection et quatre
des conditions d’accueil des élèves et de la qualité de
rapports d’encadrement pédagogique par inspecteur et
l’enseignement.
par an.
Au niveau du primaire, il est nécessaire de rendre
Les fournitures scolaires pour les élèves sont
prioritaire la formation initiale et continue des maîtres,
entièrement à la charge des parents, ce qui crée des
de produire des manuels scolaires destinés aux élèves et
disparités entre les enfants. Les manuels scolaires sont en
aux maîtres conformes aux programmes officiels et de
nombre insuffisants à tous les niveaux, surtout dans les
redynamiser les activités de contrôle et d’encadrement
lycées. Du fait que les manuels ne soient pas conçus et
du personnel enseignant. A ces mesures s’ajoutent pour
édités sur place, ils ne répondent pas aux finalités et aux
le niveau du secondaire, la mise en place des
orientations du système éducatif.
commissions disciplinaires des programmes à toutes les
La moitié des programmes scolaires n’est pas traitée
années d’enseignement, la formation des membres de ces
en raison des perturbations incessantes des cours, mais
commissions sur les aspects de l’approche curriculaire à
surtout à cause de l’absentéisme des enseignants qui
prendre en considération dans l’élaboration des
choisissent de consacrer l’essentiel de leur temps de
programmes et des moyens matériels et financiers devant
t r avail dans les établissements privés où ils sont
lui permettre d’assurer sa mission dans les meilleures
beaucoup plus contrôlés que dans le public où le système
conditions possibles.
de contrôle est presque inexistant.
Au niveau du primaire, le taux de redoublement est
III. LES RÉFORMES
d’environ 25 %.
Le tableau 1 résume le pourcentage des élèves qui ont
Trois périodes essentielles marquent l’histoire des
réussi aux différents examens des sessions 1999 et 2000.
réformes de la République fédérale islamique des
Les programmes actuellement en vigueur ne sont pas
Comores.
du tout élaborés selon l’approche curriculaire. Ils se
contentent d’énumérer les connaissances à acquérir à
La période postindépendance (1976 – 1984). Elle
chaque niveau d’enseignement en prenant soin
donnait la priorité à la formation des cadres moyens
d’énoncer les objectifs spécifiques visés dans chaque
nécessaires à l’administration. Elle était caractérisée par
chapitre à étudier et de déterminer le temps à consacrer à
une très grande volonté de sélection, des écoles primaires
chacun d’eux. Les manuels de référence sont également
localisées essentiellement dans les grandes villes, trois
indiqués, mais ils ne sont pas dans leur grande majorité
collèges d’enseignement général et un seul lycée qui
conformes aux programmes tant dans leur contenu que
accueillait l’ensemble des élèves des quatre îles. Il
dans l’approche méthodologique.
n’existait aucun établissement d’enseignement technique
et professionnel propre à accueillir les élèves exclus du
II. LES SOLUTIONS OU LES TENTATIVES DE
TABLEAU 1.Le pourcentage des élèves qui réussissent
Type d’examen
Session 1999
Session 2000
CAE
27,27
46,34
CAP
46,66
40
Culture Générale
52,94
52,17
C.E.P.E
7,44
5,09
Concours d’Entrée en 6ème
21,86
22,88
BEPC
14,22
13,08
BAC A1
21,6
31,62
BAC C
62,5
75,82
BAC D
30,93
26,84
47

système éducatif. Ce système a été remplacé par un autre
de faire au Ministre de l’éducation toute proposition d’a-
qui a donné la priorité à la formation technique et
justement qu’il jugera nécessaire ; et une cellule de
professionnelle (bâtiment, électricité, mécanique auto,
coordination des stratégies de la politique éducative. Les
techniciens de santé, gestion, comptabilité, etc.) Le retrait
écoles élémentaires, les collèges et les lycées sont
progressif de l’assistance bi et multilatérale, ajouté au
d evenus des établissements publics jouissant de
manque de débouchés, pour les cadres formés, con-
l’autonomie financière, administrés par un Conseil
sécutifs à l’absence d’infrastructures industrielles et arti-
d’administration et dirigés par un chef d’établissement.
sanales a fait abandonner ce système qui répondait aux
Aucune politique d’édition de livres conforme aux
besoins réels du pays. Le manque de personnel
orientations définies n’est évoquée dans la loi.
enseignant conduit à faire appel à des bacheliers et à des
étudiants en classe terminale pour prendre en charge l’en-
La période allant de 1994 à ce jour. La mise en place
seignement. La non formation de ces jeunes encadreurs a
p r o g r e s s ive d’une méthodologie de décentralisation
contribué à rendre moins efficace le système édu-
e ff e c t ive de l’administration de l’éducation pour
catif.
qu’enfin les établissements scolaires et les structures
régionales de l’éducation puissent jouer pleinement leur
La période allant de 1984 – 1994. La Loi N° 84 007/PR
rôle.
relative à l’Éducation et la création de l’École normale
Les langues d’enseignement, l’arabe et le français,
supérieure de Mvouni, l’Institut national de l’éducation et
sont toutes des langues étrangères non parlées dans les
l’École normale de formation d’instituteurs met l’ac-
familles, ce qui constitue un réel obstacle tout au moins
cent sur la participation communautaire, l’ouverture de
dans les premiers apprentissages. Le comorien en tant
l’école sur le milieu, sur l’école comme facteur essen-
que langue d’enseignement est surtout pratiqué au niveau
tiel du développement, sur maîtres, élèves, familles et
du préscolaire, pour les autres niveaux, il est simple-
o rganisations
locales
comme
des
artisans
de
ment toléré.
l’épanouissement et de la promotion de chacun et de tous,
La réforme répond bien aux réalités locales et aux
et doivent s’associer à l’accomplissement de la mission
besoins des populations dans la mesure où les décisions
de l’école.
qu’elle envisage sont issues d’une concertation
A part la création des associations parents-maîtres
impliquant de près la communauté de base jusqu’au
dans les villages qui n’ont pas eu de réels pouvoirs,
sommet de l’appareil étatique.
aucune autre initiative n’a été prise pour rendre effective
Les textes en vigueur recommandent la mise en oeu-
les orientations définies dans la loi.
vre des méthodes actives, d’une pédagogie coopérative et
Des États généraux sur l’éducation ont été organisées
différenciée, mais le système ne s’est pas donné les
avec implication à tous les niveaux de l’ensemble de la
moyens matériels et humains nécessaires pour les rendre
population des trois îles. Les conclusions de ces travaux
effectives dans les classes.
ont servi de base pour l’élaboration de la loi
d’orientation sur l’Éducation Loi N° 94 035/AF du 20
décembre 1994 et d’un plan directeur de l’Éducation et de
formation pour cinq ans au mois de mai 1996.
Le plan directeur précise ces options en formulant des
objectifs propres à consolider le système dont :

l’universalisation de l’enseignement primaire qui vise
à faire passer le taux net de scolarisation de 64% à 78
% ;

l’amélioration des résultats de l’apprentissage à
t r avers la qualification des enseignants par la
formation et la valorisation et par la mise en place des
programmes scolaires d’enseignement révisés pour
rendre possible l’épanouissement des aptitudes
i n d ividuelles et des personnes capables grâce à
leurs compétences de participer au développement
économique et social du pays. L’objectif visé étant de
faire passer le taux de promotion interne de 60 % à 87
% et le taux de redoublement de 30 % à 10 % ;

La restructuration et le renforcement de la formation
professionnelle et technique en la mettant au service
du développement économique et social ;

La réhabilitation des établissements scolaires.
Les structures prévues pour accompagner la réforme sont :
un conseil consultatif de l’éducation chargé de donner des
avis sur la pertinence des programmes d’enseignement et
de recherche, sur leur adéquation aux besoins du pays et
48

Comores: Le développement curriculaire : qui fait quels choix ?
Niveaux central
Niveaux régional, départemen- Niveau établissement scolaire
tal et municipal
Finalités et objectifs
Le gouvernement et l’assemblée
nationale.
Programme d’enseignement La commission générale des pro-
grammes
Méthodes et
Les écoles normales implantées Les équipes pédagogiques
stratégies d’apprentissage
dans les iles.
disciplinaires dans les établissements
Matériels didactiques
Ministère de l’éducation
Les associations communau-
Le chef d’etablissement.
nationale
taires et les parents d’élèves
Évaluation
Inspection générale de
Coordination des
l’éducation
inspections
- système éducatif
(primaire et secondaire)
- CIPR
3. République
uation est simple et inévitable. Les enfants des plus
démunis sont privés de l’éducation et de l’instruction.
démocratique du Congo
Parmi les problèmes relatifs aux curricula, on peut
citer l’insuffisance des programmes d’enseignement, la
non- couverture du programme existant, la non-exploita-
I. LES PROBLÈMES DU SYSTÈME ÉDUCATIF
tion des programmes par les utilisateurs, l’inadéquation
entre les programmes et la vie pratique. En eff e t ,
Les problèmes qui affectent le système éducatif
plusieurs de nos écoles fonctionnent sans programme
congolais sont la sous-qualification des enseignements,
d’enseignement. Il arrive souvent que certaines écoles
l’insuffisance d’infrastructures et de mobilier adéquat,
publiques et agréées n’achèvent pas le programme
l ’ i n s u ffisance de manuels scolaires, le manque de
scolaire tel que stipulé dans la législation scolaire, le
matériel didactique, le manque de planification scolaire,
calendrier allant de 220 jours maximum à 180 jours
le non-paiement des salaires. En effet, bien qu’ayant
minimum. Les chefs d’établissement ne donnent pas
obtenu un diplôme de l’option pédagogique, beaucoup
l’occasion aux enseignants de s’imprégner des contenus
d’enseignants ne sont plus capables de s’imprégner de
notionnels et méthodologiques des programmes étant
nouvelles méthodes d’apprentissage à cause de l’âge,
donné que ce sont eux les premiers utilisateurs de ces
d’autres n’ont jamais suivi les humanités pédagogiques,
documents. L’enseignement met l’accent sur la
d’autres encore n’ont pas de grade requis pour donner
mémorisation et le bourrage de crâne. Les écoles tech-
des cours dans les écoles secondaires. Du fait de
niques et de métier ne sont fréquentées que par une
l’explosion démographique, les responsables scolaires
infime minorité d’élèves.
sont obligés d’accueillir les enfants sans tenir compte de
la capacité d’accueil de leurs institutions. Dans la plu-
II. LES SOLUTIONS ET LES TENTATIVES
part des écoles rurales, les élèves sont assis à même le
DE SOLUTIONS
sol. Les pupitres existant dans certaines écoles ne
respectent pas les dimensions requises pour les dif-
Face à ces problèmes, des solutions ont été adoptées.
férents degrés du cycle primaire. Les maisons d’édition
L’État a créé le Service national de formation
des manuels ont cessé de fonctionner ou alors fonction-
( S E R NAFOR)
au
sein
de
l’Inspectorat
de
nent par-à-coup faute de directives de la part du min-
l’enseignement primaire, secondaire et professionnel,
istère de tutelle. Le matériel didactique, nécessaire à tous
pour encadrer efficacement les enseignants sous-quali-
les niveaux d’enseignement fait défaut dans les écoles
fiés. Certains organismes non gouvernementaux prêtent
publiques. Face au manque d’établissements, certains
main forte aux écoles publiques en réhabilitant les plus
particuliers de bonne volonté ont créé des écoles.
démunies et les plus pléthoriques. L’UNICEF veille sur
Nombreuses sont les écoles privées qui ne respectent pas
l’appui logistique pour quelques écoles publiques ; les
la législation scolaire en vigueur. Certaines de ces écoles
chefs d’établissements dont les écoles ne sont pas
fonctionnent dans des maisons en location ou les salles
concernées par cet appui, utilisent les moyens de bord
des classes sont en somme des chambres à coucher. Les
pour équiper progressivement leurs écoles respectives.
problèmes de salaire des enseignants remontent à plus de
L’État a accordé un délai aux gestionnaires des écoles
10 ans. L’État n’arrivant plus à payer les enseignants,
dont les conditions de fonctionnement ne sont pas
ceux-ci se sont rabattus sur les parents pour l’enseigne-
réunies pour se mettre en conformité sous peine de voir
ment qu’ils dispensent à leurs enfants. Les parents eux-
leurs institutions fermées.
mêmes démunis, sont de plus en plus incapables de s’ac-
Par rapport aux curricula, l’État, par le truchement
quitter de leurs obligations. La conséquence de cette sit-
des ONG, doit multiplier les programmes en vigueur au
49

niveau tant primaire que secondaire, les mettre à la
ment intégral. Elle a adopté les structures de gestion de
disposition des écoles et veiller à leur application. La
l’éducation à plusieurs niveaux. Au niveau central on
révalorisation de l’inspecteur d’enseignement s’avère
note : le Ministère de l’éducation nationale, l’inspectorat
impérieuse. Les disciplines ne figurant pas aux
général de l’E.P. S . P, la direction des programmes
programmes, telles que l’anglais et l’informatique seront
scolaires et de matériel didactique. Au niveau provincial,
versées dans l’enseignement non formel. Les inspecteurs
on a la Division de l’E.P.S.P., l’inspectorat principal
d evront initier les chefs d’établissements et les
provincial, les services pédagogiques. Au niveau local,
enseignants à l’exploitation des programmes en vigueur.
l’on dispose de la sous-division, de l’inspecteur chef de
Le test de fin d’études primaires (TFEP) ainsi que
pool, des gestionnaires, des inspecteurs itinérants, du
l ’ examen d’État contribuent à l’uniformisation du
conseiller d’enseignement et du chef d’établissement
programme car les gestionnaires craignent des échecs
enseignant.
qui découleraient de non-respect du programme national
D’après cette réforme, le français est la langue
étant donné que ce genre d’évaluation est dévoué à
d’enseignement. Cependant au degré élémentaire, il est
l’État.
enseigné comme langue seconde et non comme langue
maternelle. Les langues nationales congolaises servent
III. LES RÉFORMES
de prérequis dans l’enseignement du français.
La réforme en vigueur s’appuie sur les finalités de
L’histoire éducative du Congo est jalonnée de plusieurs
l’enseignement national définies par la Loi-cadre
périodes. La période précoloniale (1890–1906) est
no.86/005 du 22/09/1986 et par la Charte de l’Éducation,
caractérisée par l’organisation des colonies scolaires où
CNS, 1992.
l’encadrement des enfants était assuré par les
Les disciplines, comme les thèmes rencontrent les
missionnaires et les militaires, la création des écoles
orientations socio-économiques du pays pour qu’à la fin
libres et la signature d’une convention entre l’État et le
de l’apprentissage, l’enfant puisse être capable d’être
Vatican. La finalité de l’école pendant cette période était
utile à lui-même et à la société. Un enseignement par
la formation des auxiliaires catéchistes, des auxiliaires
objectifs, un apprentissage actif, savoirs, des savoir-faire
commis de l’État et des soldats lettrés; le développement
et de savoir-être sont des stratégies en étroite relation
des aptitudes des enfants au travail manuel et à la
avec les objectifs, des contenus et les méthodes prévus au
connaissance de la langue vernaculaire. La période
programme. En définitive, l’enfant doit rester au cen-
coloniale (1908 – 1958) est caractérisée par la réforme de
tre de l’enseignement. Ainsi toutes les perspectives de
1948 (création des écoles moyennes avec comme
formation doivent concourir à la réalisation d’un seul
objectif la formation des cadres subalternes de
objectif final à savoir la formation intégrale de l’enfant.
l’administration) et la réforme de 1958 (accompagnant le
courant d’émancipation politique au Congo). Elle a fait
4. Eritrea
la première tentative d’unifier le programme
d’enseignement
en
imposant
le
programme
Tefsamicael Gerahtu
métropolitain dans toutes les écoles. La période (1960 –
1981) est caractérisée par la réforme de 1961
After thirty years of war, Eritrea is trying to rebuild its
concrétisant l’unification des régimes qui appliquaient
education system with the intention of favo u r i n g
aux uns, le programme congolais à caractère sélectif et
national unity and identity, social justice and with the
aux autres, le programme métropolitain. La réforme de
intention of educating citizens with progressive morality.
1962 s’intéresse davantage à l’enfant. Elle prône un
The new education system is based on the following
enseignement fonctionnel ayant l’enfant au centre de
policies: (i) uniformity among cultural and ethnic
toutes ses préoccupations. La réforme de 1963 a
diversity; (ii) promotion of local languages in education
accouché d’un programme national de l’enseignement
by using eight of the nine local languages as a medium
primaire qui adaptait au contexte congolais le
of instruction at primary level; (iii) alignment of the
programme métropolitain avec l’imposition du français
teaching and learning processes (content) with the
comme langue d’enseignement. A partir de 1965, la
children’s upbringing; (iv) community participation and
tendance est de finaliser l’enseignement primaire en
c a p a c i t y - building for democratic schooling whereby
l’orientant vers les activités agricoles. Les programmes
ethnic minorities and girls are given first priority; and (v)
qui se sont succédés par la suite sont inspirés par celui de
institutionalization of schools, which involves local mon-
1963. La réforme de 1984 a lancé un programme
itoring and empowerment of schools.
national
de
l’enseignement
primaire
intitulé
« Vade-mecum des maîtres » qui a fait l’objet d’une
I. PROBLEMS AFFECTING
expérimentation dans les écoles de Kinshasa et de
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
Kisangani. La réforme de 1997 est la plus récente. Elle a
été conçue pour le cycle primaire. Elle a adopté le pro-
In Eritrea, there has been a quest for a releva n t
gramme triennal minimum (1997 – 1999), fixé des prior-
curriculum that addresses the needs of the people, and
ités pour l’éducation nationale, promu une formation de
promotes equality, access and quality. So fa r, the
qualité pour tous dans le but d’assurer à chacun la
curriculum has been plagued with the follow i n g
maîtrise des instruments indispensables à son développe-
problems: (i) it lacks the subjects that are required for life
50

in the twenty-first century, like science and technology;
to only 10% of the age group. Thus, higher education is
(ii) there is too much emphasis on academic theory, and
only available to a small fraction of those who manage to
the curriculum is heavily overloaded with content which
complete secondary schooling successfully. Secondly,
is unrelated to reality in the country; (iii) new policy
the low and declining quality of education at various lev-
initiatives have not been completely assimilated by the
els has led to high drop-out and repetition rates, espe-
teachers-some of them still use the old curriculum and
cially for girls. This poor quality is influenced by a lack
methods of teaching; (iv) and the professional level of
of adequate teaching materials, inadequate teacher train-
the teachers is very low. At school level, the following
ing, and curricula that do not respond to regional, cultur-
problems have been identified: (i) a systematic and
al and linguistic diversity. Thirdly, schools are unevenly
didactic approach to the curriculum is lacking; (ii) also
d i s t r i buted among different regions and rural/urban
missing is a lack of content on proper theory to justify
areas. Hence, there are inevitable disparities among
the basic philosophy and objectives; (iii) the school
r egions, between genders and levels of schooling.
syllabus lacks structural unity and continuity; (iv) an
Fourthly, the schools have the following outstanding
interdisciplinary approach to teaching does not exist; and
problems: (i) poor infrastructure; (ii) delayed distribution
(v) textbooks are of poor quality and teacher training is
of teaching and learning materials; (iii) slow
inadequate.
dissemination of new ideas and educational inno vations;
and (iv) out-of-date attitudes to monitoring schools’
II. SOLUTIONS
performance, while professional management strategies
are lacking.
In Eritrea, people believe that the role of the curriculum
There are also some problems related to the
is to raise productivity and improve the social structure.
curricula because they have undergone a series of
It is important for the curriculum to promote society’s
changes. During these changes, the following problems
wishes by making education more equitable. T h e
have come to the surface: (i) due to the decentralization
curriculum should be focused on the betterment of
process, there has been a lack of professional expertise in
human society through local and internal diversification
curriculum design, materials development, monitoring
and local va r i a t i o n s—thus, there is a need for the
and evaluation; (ii) the newly adopted media of
structure of the school system to be unified. T h e
instruction have little or no literary stocks, such as
democratization of the curriculum will help to secure
dictionaries, glossaries and other printed literature; (iii)
community participation; for instance, the use of local
the recent curriculum is more demanding on both
languages at primary level is a way of encouraging
teachers and students, while teachers and school
people to support education and schooling. As far as text-
administrators have received little support from the
book production is concerned, authorship of books has to
central services; (iv) teachers are resistant to the new
be to opened up to universities and individual academics.
changes; (v) school timetables have become over-loaded,
There is also a need for more emphasis on school-based
particularly with the arrival of new concepts to be taught,
examinations and continuous assessment rather than
e.g. HIV/AIDS, gender issues, etc.; (vi) there is minimal
external examinations. Another solution would be to
co-operation and participation by parents in schooling;
have national assessments based on competence tests in
and (vii) financing is very poor for schools.
targeted areas.
II. SOLUTIONS
5. Ethiopia
Solutions to these problems require continuous research,
Dereje Terefe Gemechu
planning and determined execution of planned activities.
The Education Sector Development Programme could be
The Ethiopian education system is characterized by the
a strategic solution for most of the problems, since it
lowest access to education in sub-Saharan Africa. The
addresses the human, professional, material financial and
enrolment ratio for girls is 40.7%, while for boys it is
managerial demands and expectations at all leve l s .
60.9%. Participation rates vary significantly between
Another strategy would be to raise public awareness, in
regions. The country has developed an Education Sector
order to mobilize the support of the people in ensuring
Development Programme covering a period of twenty
the success of education and training programmes. There
years, by which time universal primary education should
is also a need to create a common mindset among pro-
have been achieved. Performance targets for the short-,
fessionals and the teaching force. Problems regarding the
medium- and long-term scale have also been set.
curriculum can be counteracted as follows: (i)
continuous capacity-building at regional, local and
I. PROBLEMS AFFECTING
school levels; (ii) preparing teacher to introduce
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
curricular innovations; (iii) improvement in the schools’
infrastructure; (iv) improvements to the school timetable,
First of all, the education sector in Ethiopia is
the pupil/teacher ratio and the distribution of teaching
characterized by low enrolment at all levels. Fo r
materials; and (v) continuous evaluation and review con-
instance, only 51% of the school-age population attend
cerning the implementation of the curriculum.
primary school, whilst secondary education is accessible
51

III. EDUCATIONAL REFORM
result in some form of cultural restoration and recogni-
tion for national identities among the wider public.
Ethiopia carried out its most recent educational reform in
the 1990s, which introduced two major developments:
(a) the education system has been decentralized; and (b)
6. Kenya
responsibility for the curriculum has been decentralized,
particularly to primary schools. The medium of
J. Kiptoon
instruction at the primary level has become the local
language(s) that each regional/zonal council approves.
Kenya, like any other developing country, faces the chal-
The federal language, Amharic, is introduced as a subject
lenge of providing quality education to its growing pop-
at grade three in non-Amharic zones or regions, while
ulation against the backdrop of dwindling resources. The
English is used as a medium of instruction from
problems and the challenges are mainly related to issues
secondary education onwards. The education and
of access, equity, quality and relevance of educa-
training policy reforms have also presented an
tion. Kenya’s people belong to different tribes. Thus, the
implementation strategy known as the Education Sector
Kenyan education system has been designed to cater for
D evelopment Programme. How eve r, it immediately
and foster national unity and development, economic
became clear that there is a lack of reading materials in
and social needs through individual development
local languages and a shortage of teaching staff. The use
and self-development, social equality, respect and devel-
of local languages is an attempt by the government to
opment of a cultural heritage, as well as raising aware-
recognize the rights of different ethnic groups since it
ness of an international consciousness. However, like
will help them to develop their culture. This political
most African countries, Kenya has educational prob-
initiative has created an impression of cultural restora-
lems that are listed below.
tion and of national identity among the wider public. It
has had a positive effect on school participation rates in
I. PROBLEMS WITH THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
all primary schools and has increased community
participation, as well as contributing to a sense of
One of the major problems facing the school system and
partnership and of school ownership.
curricula is related to access to formal education, whose
N evertheless, there is a need for more studies,
problems revo l ve around enrolment, retention,
research and capacity-building measures in the area of
transition, completion, drop-out and repetition rates. To
language instruction. The learners’ competence and
illustrate this point, in 1990, the gross enrolment rate at
mastery of the English language still leaves much to be
primary level was 101%, as opposed to 86.9% in 1999.
desired. Textbook production is also a major problem in
Out of 8 million children aged between 6 and 13 years,
terms of quality, timely distribution, the number of text-
only 5 million were enrolled in primary schools in 1999.
books per student and the availability of a fully fledged
Another problem results from the fact that the
publishing policy. Some problems have also been
community is responsible for the recruitment and
experienced with the implementation of the reforms
payment of teachers, most of whom are not well trained
since: (i) the curriculum has been reviewed several times,
and are relatively poorly paid. Further problems include
and the textbooks have also been reviewed and reprinted;
the following: (i) education is expensive, hence some
and (ii) there is a need for in-service training so that
households cannot afford to send their children to school,
teachers may move away from teacher-centred learning
while in some schools facilities are limited; (ii) the
strategies; and (iii) the school timetable is heavily
inflexibility of the education system and the curriculum;
overloaded a situation that could be avoided through
(iii) the impact of poverty, HIV/AIDS and drug abuse;
interdisciplinarity.
(iv) insecurity in some areas where children may be
attacked on their way to school; (v) poor access to
IV. SPECIAL ISSUES
educational services in remote areas; and (v) inequitable
d i s t r i bution of learning and instructional materials
Ethiopia has the second largest population in sub-
throughout the country.
Saharan Africa, yet access to education is one of the
Before the implementation of the 8+4+4 curriculum,
l owest in the region. The education sector is
the previous 7+4+2+3 curriculum had become irrelevant
characterized by low enrolment at all levels; as
and inappropriate to the needs of learners and society. If
mentioned, only 51% of the school-age population
we look at the quality of education in the 8+4+4 curricu-
r e c e ives primary education. The recent curriculum
lum, the following problems have been identified: (i) the
reforms introduced a situation in which twenty national
practical, skills-based curriculum is too expensive for the
languages became the media for instruction either in
government, parents and communities to maintain; (ii)
lower primary (grades 1 to 4 or 1 to 6) or in full primary
inadequate teacher training and poor fa c i l i t i e s ,
(grades 1 to 8) schools. The problems related to the use
equipment and teaching/learning materials; (iii) weak
of so many languages include the standardization of the
resource management; and (iv) poor monitoring and
languages themselves, the availability of printed
evaluation of the new curricula. There are also some
materials and sometimes a lack of teaching staff .
problems related to the relevance of the education
Nonetheless, the government hopes that this policy will
provided to the Kenyans, which include a mismatch
52

between the knowledge and skills acquired, limited
curriculum content with more emphasis on technical
research and evaluation, national goals not yet revised to
education, and a marked departure from the previously
t a ke account of recent technological and industrial
examination-centred curricula. Broad guidelines and
innovations, and too much emphasis on the cognitive
objectives were set, and the medium of instruction
domain and on certification.
(English) in both primary and secondary schools was
determined. At primary level, the subjects were divided
II. SOLUTIONS
into five broad fields: communication, mathematics,
science, humanities and applied education.
Some of the solutions to overcome the problems listed
The major problem with this reform has been that the
above include the following: (i) there are policies to
subjects are too numerous and the scope is too wide to be
ensure provision of early childhood education that may
covered during the normal school working day. The
serve to improve access to primary education; (ii) the use
Ministry of Education reduced the subjects from eleven
of existing educational facilities should be maximized;
to six, and some of these subjects were made non-
(iii) for the tertiary level, maximum use of all facilities
examinable. The result was that, due to pressure of time,
should also be promoted; (iv) special needs education
teachers abandoned those subjects that were non-
has to be promoted; (v) educational managers should be
examinable. At secondary level, students may sit for as
provided with training; (vi) there is a need to increase the
many as nine subjects, but will be graded in only seven
supply of textbooks, educational materials and
of them. For practical subjects requiring more time to
specialized facilities; and (vii) teacher development and
carry out projects, the teachers resorted to theoretical
support need to be enhancedæand many others.
teaching only with little or no practical lessons. The third
problem is concerned with the lack of a standardized
III. EDUCATIONAL REFORM
format to carry out continuous assessment. T h u s ,
individual teachers apply assessment differently, with the
Curriculum reform means accepting the fact that no
result that some students are likely to be more favoured
curriculum is static, since the social, political and
than others.
economic realities of different societies are constantly
changing. Reforms in Kenya began with the English-
IV. SPECIAL ISSUES
medium project, which was launched in 1957 with the
aim of introducing English as a medium of instruction
Kenya is the only country in East African using the
starting from grade one. In the long run, the project,
8+4+4 structure of education, whilst the other countries,
which was later called the New Primary Approach, failed
like the United Republic of Tanzania and Uganda, still
because it was too expensive and unattainable because
follow the 7+4+2+3 system. This poses a problem in the
schools needed more trained teachers, textbooks and
area of student exchange and transfer when Kenyan
other materials. The second reform took place in 1970
students want to study in other countries. At school level,
with the adoption of the Kenya Mathematics Project.
a common complaint is that too many subjects have to be
This programme had been introduced in the United
c overed within a very short space of time. Hence
States of America in 1955 and later in the United
learners may have to come to school as early as 6 a.m.
Kingdom. When it reached Africa, Kenya joined the
and cannot go to bed before 11 p.m., including being
other African countries. The ‘new mathematics’ project
obliged to study on Saturdays and during school
changed the curriculum structure of mathematics, the
holidays. In a way, this is robbing children of their
content and methods of teaching it. Some problems arose
childhood, as there is no time for them to play and learn
at primary school due to the abstract nature of some
informally in their own environment. The problem of
mathematics topics (sets, probability, bases, etc.); the
access to education is exacerbated by socio-cultural cus-
language used was alien to both the teachers and
toms whose practices include early marriage—mostly
learners. These obstacles combined with large classes,
affecting girls. For instance, when resources are limited,
lack of facilities and inadequate teacher training led to
parents prefer to send boys to schools. This has led to a
the failure of this project.
gender disparity in terms of access to education.
The third reform was launched in 1978 through the
primary education project. Subjects were reorganized in
some curricular areas in order to help achieve the aims of
primary education. However, the project also faced two
major problems in the areas of finances, which were
supplied by the World Bank, and in the co-ordination of
the project. There was a lack of co-ordination between
the project implementers and the Teachers Service
Commission.
The last reform to-date was implemented in 1985
when the 8+4+4 system of education was introduced.
This new system was expected to address the failures of
the 7+4+2+3 system and lead to an improvement of
53

7. Mauritius
III. EDUCATIONAL REFORM
Hirinand Dansingani
The major reform dates back to the 1980s with the
introduction of the Certificate of Primary Education
Education in Mauritius is free of charge and a right from
(CPE), which was an endeavour to mo ve away from the
primary through to tertiary level, while a system of
previous curriculum geared towards producing clerks for
grants exists for the pre-primary level. Structurally, the
the civil service. Transformations and reforms attempted
system operates according to the 6+5+2 principle.
to ‘Mauritianize’ the curriculum by making it more
Nevertheless, various problems exist in the education
child-centred and interdisciplinary. The CPE used
system regarding access and equity, the qualitative
ranking as a basis for admission into secondary schools,
dimension and management.
thus the curricular goals ended up being more teacher-
centred, favouring rote memorization and ‘narrow
I. PROBLEMS AFFECTING
thinking’, since the objective seemed to be improving
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
learner performance in the examinations.
In 1993, a curriculum renewal project was embarked
While there is almost universal schooling from the age of
on at primary and lower secondary levels. At primary
5 at the primary level, one out of every three pupils has
level, the Essential Learning Competencies (testing the
dropped out by the end of the primary cycle, and only
minimal degree of learning competencies) and Desirable
one out of twenty-nine pupils successfully reaches the
Learning Competencies (DLC) (testing higher-
end of the secondary system. Only 3% of all students
order competencies) were introduced. One of the major
who pass the Higher School Certificate at the secondary
problems experienced during the reform was that there
level gain access to the University of Mauritius, thus
was a massive failure rate (one out of every three pupils),
jeopardizing the opportunity for the proper development
which had a disastrous effect in terms of human
of each person.
resources, since learners were not able to continue with
Pre-service training is offered to primary teachers
their studies.
much more frequently than for secondary teachers
The current reforms at primary level have helped to
because of a belief that primary schooling is the
eliminate the ranking exercise and now focus
foundation for education. Thus, teachers at the secondary
exclusively on academic subjects with the primary goal
level could benefit from more intensive training. Some
of assessing the ‘star’ schools. There is also a need to
schools are ranked higher than others, although there is
g ive a broad-based education to children that will
no official quality assurance or benchmarking system
promote their mental, physical, aesthetic, spiritual and
because of the absence of a well-structured inspectorate
cultural development. The curriculum also introduces
system. Some schools are poorly managed and there is a
awareness of rights and duties among children, the
lack of motivation among teachers because of limited
richness of living together and adaptation to the era of
prospects for promotion. Another problem is that the
the globalization. The new curriculum uses English as a
system is highly centralized and schools are given very
medium of instruction in schools, with French being
little financial autonomy.
taught as a subject. It has been commonly felt that the
Curricula suffer from the following problems: (i) the
education system must pursue dissemination of both
inability of the school to help learners adapt to and meet
French and English in order to meet the challenges of
the socio-economic needs; (ii) ove r-emphasis on
globalization and technical progress. The local Creole is
discipline-orientation at the expense of skills and
used as a learning support, and is often resorted to in the
competency orientation; and (iii) too much emphasis on
classroom to facilitate the assimilation of diffi c u l t
summative assessment and not enough on formative
concepts.
assessment, since too much emphasis is placed on the
Furthermore, the current reform ensures that a
outcomes of end-of-year and end-of-cycle examinations.
pre-vocational stream and a suitable curriculum will be
introduced in all State secondary and private schools so
II. SOLUTIONS
as to cater for those learners who have failed twice at the
primary level because of the examination system (CPE).
The Mauritius Government has focused mainly on the
This pre-vocational curriculum will concentrate on six
structural change in the education system and curriculum
learning areas: communication skills; functional
r e n ewal in the primary sector. The structural
mathematics; environment; science and technology;
transformation will aim at the achievement of universal,
c r e a t ive and performing arts; and self-deve l o p m e n t .
free and compulsory schooling lasting for eleven years
Information and technology (IT) has been introduced as
and put more emphasis on construction of new
a subject in all schools throughout the country. Teacher
secondary schools so that student in each region can be
training in all of these areas is already in progress. The
admitted to them. The best (‘star’) schools will become
formulation of the new primary curriculum focuses on
sixth-form colleges (i.e. upper secondary level). The new
key survival skills that include problem-solving, group
secondary curriculum, quality assurance and standard
learning, creativity and flexibility. The reform project
setting are projects that are still in the pipeline.
has invo l ved the mobilization of large fi n a n c i a l
resources, a massive recruitment of IT and arts teachers,
54

and a reorganization of the administration in order to
ensure the sustainability of the reform.
Curricular contents and educational policies have not
Some problems have been identified during the
enjoyed the same level of confidence and diligence in
implementation process including the following: (i)
their implementation as in their design and
teacher resistance regarding the introduction of new
conceptualization. As a result, the education system is
subjects, such as citizenship education and the arts; (ii)
plagued by the following problems: (i) inadequate
an overloaded timetable through the addition of extra
funding which manifests itself through a lack of teaching
subjects (teachers have resisted the extension of working
and learning materials and resources, the non-payment of
hours, even though they were offered extra pay); (iii)
teachers salaries, etc.; (ii) poor planning that puts further
there is an ongoing debate as to whether IT should be
pressure on the budget because of the need to cater to
used across the curriculum as a tool to reinforce teaching
high enrolment rates; (iii) highly centralized
or whether it should be taught as a subject, as is
management of education through the federal
currently the case; and (iv) a shortage of both physical
government; (iv) mismatch between the values of school-
and human resources for the production of quality
ing and what the parents and community want; and (v)
teaching, learning materials and other aids.
clashes between the child’s familial obligations and
schooling. The following problems are particularly relat-
IV. SPECIAL ISSUES
ed to the curriculum: (i) there are hardly any funds avail-
able to buy materials and to expand the educational infra-
As was mentioned earlier, Mauritius enjoys free and full
structure; (ii) no school inspections are carried out to
coverage at primary education level, and democratic and
monitor curriculum implementation; (iii) instructional
economic stability. Paradoxically, due to the bottleneck
materials are poorly developed and supplies are
situation occurring at the transition to secondary
inadequate; (iv) teacher morale is poor and their compe-
education, there is a heavy drop-out rate among children
tence is insufficient to deliver the new curriculum; (v)
who have repeated a primary class twice. A n o t h e r
low student achievement, especially in science subjects
important innovation includes the introduction of
due to overloaded content, lack of teacher competence,
information technology (IT) and the setting up of
an inadequate supply of teaching materials, and a faulty
computer laboratories in each of the 278 primary schools
mechanism for assessment that creates an unfair reward
across the country. The country has also embarked on
system.
training programmes to provide existing and new
teachers with citizenship education, IT, arts, sports and
II. SOLUTIONS
health education. Teaching and learning materials, such
as textbooks, are properly tested before being freely
The following solutions have been suggested in order to
distributed to schools. Finally, the new curriculum aims
address the problems experienced with the education
at fostering sound relationships of peaceful co-existence
system in general and the curriculum in particular: (i)
and interactions in a multicultural society, such as that of
greater decentralization of education in a true sense; (ii)
Mauritius, through the teaching of subjects like
increased funding of education so that educational plans
citizenship education, which includes human values,
may be achieved; and (iii) the creation of entry and exit
cultural heritage and dive r s i t y, natural heritage and
points for older children flexible enough to
national unity.
accommodate those who missed enrolment at age 6 and
yet are still young enough to benefit from basic
education. To achieve these educational goals and
policies it is essential that the country experiences social
and political stability.
8. Nigeria
III. EDUCATIONAL REFORM
The 6+3+3+4 education system emanated from the
Ebele Maduewesi
National Curriculum Conference in 1969 as a major
attempt to reform the existing curriculum. Within this
Nigeria has participated in all deliberations concerning
system, the secondary school curriculum in all subjects
education for living together in a global world and is
was expanded in both breadth and depth in order to cater
committed to the goals of Education for All, which are
for what would otherwise have been lost through the
reflected in national education policies and programmes.
scrapping of the upper secondary school. Other changes
The introduction of Universal Primary Education in 1976
included: (a) the fact that basic education became
and the publication of the National Policy on Education
vocational and academic and was free and compulsory;
(NPE, 1977, revised in 1981 and 1998) are among the
(b) the introduction of pre-vocational subjects
major national initiatives that were aimed at universaliz-
(technology, business studies, home economics); (c) a
ing access to education in Nigeria. The NPE provides a
shift from content-based to process-based learning in
framework within which all planned programmes
sciences; (d) the introduction of social studies and
and activities for basic education are implemented.
citizenship education; (e) the use of the mother-tongue as
I. PROBLEMS WITHIN THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
55

a medium of instruction in the early years of primary
marché de l’emploi et la formation dispensée.
education; and (f) continual and cumulative assessment
La dimension curriculaire des problèmes de
of learning. The Primary Education Improvement Project
l’éducation se présente avec l’année 1994 comme un
(1970) and the Bendel Primary Science Project (1996)
repère important. Avant 1994, « les programmes
were also introduced during these reforms.
d’enseignement élaborés suivaient une structure
Nigeria has taken some initiatives that have had a
inadaptée ». Les contenus des programmes ne
beneficial effect on and guided activities in favour of
répondaient pas à la réalité socio-économique et
Education for All. These include: (i) the expansion of
culturelle du pays : contenus des programmes calqués
access to formal education; (ii) the setting up of
sur les modèles étrangers. Les filières et les options
government agencies to cater for disadvantaged groups,
d’enseignement définies arbitrairement et non conformes
drop-outs and the disabled; (iii) placing education on the
aux réalités du pays et ne respectant pas le principe de
shortlist for legislative action so that the government
l’adéquation formation-emploi. Les programmes
shall direct its policies towards ensuring that there is
correspondant aux filières et options retenues sont
equal and adequate educational opportunities at all
surchargés. Les programmes de l’enseignement primaire
levels, and (iv) the government has financed all curricu-
et secondaire conçus respectivement pour préparer
lar development efforts at primary, junior secondary and
l’enfant à affronter le secondaire et le supérieur et non
t e a c h e r-training education. Finally, based on the
pour participer à la résolution des problèmes de la vie, au
experiences acquired over the years, and feedback from
développement national et à la formation des cadres
the national curriculum conference of 1991 and 1995, as
m oyens spécialisés répondant aux besoins du
well as subsequent appraisal of the education system to
développement du pays. Les contenus des programmes
fit the dynamics of socio-cultural and global economy,
n’intégraient pas une éducation à la paix et aux droits de
the curricula for basic education is undergoing revision.
l’homme.
« Le contexte socio-politique du Rwanda après 1994
IV. SPECIAL ISSUES
exigeait que les programmes d’enseignement soient
r evus et harmonisés pour permettre aux enfa n t s
In Nigeria, measures are being considered to bring about
p r ovenant de différents systèmes éducatifs d’être
complementarity and integration between the Koranic
instruits en suivant les mêmes normes d’éducation. »
and official schools that have existed up to now along
« La révision des programmes a suivi l’ajustement de
parallel lines. Since, 1999, Nigeria has also embarked on
la réforme qui a instauré une structure de six ans au lieu
a nine-year Universal Basic Education programme. The
de huit ans au primaire, deux cycles au secondaire (un
country uses the 6+3+3+4 education system.
tronc commun de trois ans et un deuxième cycle de deux
ou trois ans selon les options) au lieu d’un cycle unique
de six ans pour le secondaire ».
9. Rwanda
Parmi les critiques adressées aux nouveaux pro-
grammes on peut citer : « l’incohérence de contenus pour
certains curricula ; le manque de suite logique au niveau
I. LES PROBLÈMES DU SYSTÈME ÉDUCATIF
des prérequis ; le niveau trop élevé de quelques contenus
; la surcharge de certains enseignements ; la difficulté
Une vue globale sur les problèmes que connaît le
d’apprentissage des langues ; le manque de manuels sco-
système éducatif rwandais indique que l’objectif de
laires conformes à ces curricula, le manque de suivi des
démocratisation de l’éducation n’est pas atteint, que les
curricula élaborés à cause de l’effectif très réduit des
taux de scolarisation restent faibles, qu’il y a une baisse
concepteurs des programmes sur les plans quantitatif et
de la qualité de l’enseignement, un manque d’efficacité
qualitatif et à cause du problème lié à la logistique et aux
et une mauvaise gestion du système.
finances » .
En effet, le système éducatif rwandais est confronté à
A ces différents problèmes, des solutions ont été
l ’ i n s u ffisance du personnel d’enseignement et
adressées.






















d’encadrement administratif à la fois en nombre et en
qualité, un abaissement de la motivation des enseignants
II. LES SOLUTIONS ET LES TENTATIVES
lié à leurs salaires bas, à des taux (bruts) de scolarisation
DE SOLUTIONS
très bas (22 % des lauréats du primaire sont admis dans
les établissements secondaires publics et 10 % dans les
Face à ces problèmes, le Ministère de l’Éducation s’est
écoles
privées),
l’insuffisance
d’infrastructures
assigné une mission importante avec des objectifs
d’accueil, la mauvaise répartition de la carte scolaire, aux
précis dont la réalisation passe par de mesures concrètes.
infrastructures détruites ou défectueuses et non encore
L’une de ces mesures est la formation des enseignants de
réhabilitées, l’insuffisance et l’inadaptation du mobilier
qualité et en nombre suffisant pour tous les niveaux
scolaire et du matériel didactique approprié surtout pour
d’enseignement. Le ministère a procédé à la création de
l’enseignement des sciences et de la technologie,
centres de formation des enseignants au niveau de
l’instabilité et l’inadaptation de la structure de l’en-
l’enseignement secondaire, des TTC (teacher training
seignement, l’absence ou le dépassement par endroit de
centers), dans lesquels on forme des enseignants pour le
la législation scolaire, l’inadéquation entre les besoins du
niveau primaire, d’un institut supérieur pédagogique
56

pour la formation des enseignants du secondaire, du KIE
(Kigali Institute of Education). Des mesures ont été
L’histoire de l’éducation scolaire au Rwanda est
adoptées en vue d’assurer la formation continue et un
caractérisée par cinq périodes ayant chacune sa
appui pédagogique aux enseignants, de créer un
spécificité.
environnement favorisant leur motivation, de réviser leur
La période coloniale allemande (1900-1917) au cours
plan de carrière, et d’améliorer leurs conditions de
de laquelle l’école initiée par les missionnaires visait une
travail.
formation religieuse, l’alphabétisation et l’apprentissage
Un effort remarquable a été fait dans le sens du
de quelques métiers. La période coloniale belge (1920-
renforcement du soutien pédagogique, du système
1962) correspondait à un enseignement libre subsidié
d’information et de communication. Cela a permis
c o n fié aux congrégations religieuses et ayant des
d’accroître la capacité d’accueil à tous les niveaux
programmes d’enseignement calqués à partir de 1948 sur
d’enseignement
en
construisant
de
nouve l l e s
le système éducatif belge doublé d’un enseignement
infrastructures d’accueil, en mettant sur pied une carte
religieux. La période allant de 1962 à 1973 (première
scolaire rationnelle, en mettant en place une structure
République) sera consacrée par la loi scolaire du 27 août
d’enseignement stable et adaptée au contexte du
1966 proposée par le gouvernement de la première
moment. La formation et l’affectation du personnel
République et qui s’inspire largement du Plan
qualifié dans les différents services de l’administration
d’Addis-Abeba (mai 1961) consistant à doter de
centrale et décentralisée a été réorganisée. Il a été
nouveaux États africains de cadres de différents niveaux
procédé aussi à la mise en place d’une législation
pour leur développement. Elle correspond à l’institution
scolaire solide et adaptée, à la promotion de
de l’enseignement officiel en plus des écoles libres
l’enseignement de la science et de la formation technique
subventionnées et privées et de l’enseignement primaire
et professionnelle, à l’adoption d’un programme
universel, gratuit et obligatoire de six ans pour tous les
d’éducation intégrale, respectueuse des droits de
enfants de 7 à 12 ans avec un système de double vacation
l’homme, de l’éducation à la paix, de la non-violence et
au premier cycle de quatre ans, l’enseignement post-
adaptée à la situation du pays, à la diversification des
primaire de trois ans sous forme d’écoles ménagères et
sources de financement basées sur de nouveaux principes
centres de métiers en vue de l’éducation des jeunes à la
directeurs tels que le partenariat avec les commu-
vie familiale et rurale améliorée, l’enseignement
nautés, ONG, organisations volontaires, églises et asso-
secondaire en deux cycles, (après un tronc commun de
ciations des parents, l’implication des commu-
trois ans, les élèves sont orientés dans les sections
nautés locales dans la construction, la gestion et la super-
normale,
agricole,
médicale,
administrative
et
vision de leurs propres écoles, l’encouragement du
commerciale ; les sections techniques (quatre à six ans)
secteur privé, et l’introduction des mesures de recou-
et les sections d’enseignement général gréco-latines et
vrement des coûts et en encourageant des insti-
latin-sciences gardent un cycle unique), l’enseignement
tutions privées d’enseignement supérieur.
supérieur est ouvert en 1963 avec la création de
Il y a des solutions qui concernent les curricula. Il
l’Université nationale du Rwanda et celle de l’Institut
s’agit entre autres de l’évaluation des programmes.
pédagogique national en 1966 respectivement avec l’ap-
L’évaluation des curricula en expérimentation suppose
pui du Canada et de l’UNESCO.
une enquête auprès des utilisateurs (élèves, enseignants,
La période de 1973 à 1994 (la deuxième République)
directeurs d’écoles, inspecteurs) pour bien identifier les
est caractérisée par la réforme scolaire de 1978/1979 et
problèmes rencontrés, les confirmer ou les infirmer, la
un réajustement intervenu en 1991. D’après la loi
détermination des aspects sur lesquels des améliorations
n°048/91 du 25 octobre 1991, l’enseignement primaire
peuvent être apportées aux curricula et la révision et
dure désormais six ans et comprend deux cy c l e s .
l’adoption définitive des curricula. Il a été aussi question
L’enseignement secondaire dure également six ans et est
de procéder à l’élaboration de manuels scolaires
également subdivisé en deux cycles. La période de 1995
conformes aux nouveaux programmes en vue de faciliter
à nos jours est caractérisée par une nouve l l e
le processus d’apprentissage des enseignants et des
réorganisation du système éducatif, la mise en place de
é l èves. Pour les programmes de l’enseignement
n o u velles structures au niveau du Ministère de
technique et professionnel, les mesures visent à aller
l’éducation (le centre national de développement des
dans le sens de l’assouplissement des structures de
programmes, Le conseil national des ex a m e n s ,
formation afin de mieux pouvoir s’adapter aux besoins
l’inspection générale de l’éducation, les div i s i o n s
des utilisateurs. Cela suppose des formations modulaires,
chargées de l’éducation continue et spéciale, la direction
des recyclages et stages dans les entreprises privées, un
chargée de la gestion et du développement du personnel
renforcement des compétences et une participation
enseignant), la création de nouvelles institutions
accrue des établissements et des entreprises dans la
d’enseignement supérieur spécialisé en sciences et tech-
conception des programmes, une suppression des cours
nologie, en sciences de la santé et en pédagogie (KIST,
généraux non indispensables dans le cas où on garderait
KHI, KIE en plus des établissements publics existants :
la formation de six ans au secondaire, la spécialisation
(UNR et ISAE), avec un accent particulier sur
des apprenants en fonction des besoins réels du marché
l’enseignement des sciences et technologie, du primaire
de travail.
au supérieur., l’utilisation de deux langues d’enseigne-
III. LES RÉFORMES
ment l’anglais et le français, l’intégration des valeurs
57

fondamentales (droits de l’homme et de la femme,
have been arranged with the Edith Cowan University in
culture de la paix, tolérance et unité nationale) dans les
Australia and Manchester University in the United
contenus des programmes d’enseignement. Un accent
Kingdom.
particulier est porté à l’éducation des filles et des femmes
à tous les niveaux d’enseignement. Les curricu-
I. PROBLEMS IN THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
la de l’enseignement primaire, secondaire général, péda-
gogique et une partie du domaine technique sont
Like many other countries in the world, the Seychelles
élaborés suivant la démarche de la pédagogie par
education system is caught up in the international
objectifs alors ceux de l’enseignement technique et plus
movement for reform in education in response to the
particulièrement des options relatives aux techniques
demands of rapid technological change, the information
industrielles sont élaborés suivant l’approche modulaire.
age and globalization. Nonetheless, like some of the
other countries discussed earlier on, the follow i n g
Bibliographie
problems affect the school system: (i) very limited finan-
cial, material and human resources, a situation compli-
Bureau international d’éducation, Rapport national du
cated by the fact that several new initiatives are being
Rwanda, Kigali, MINEDUC, 2001.
pushed through at once; (ii) a school system still based
Rapport du Séminaire-atelier sur la Révision et
on the colonial past which has failed to adapt to current
l’harmonisation des programmes de l’enseignement
ideas and expectations; (iii) initiatives for improvement
secondaire, Kigali, mai 1996.
are borrowed and adapted from more ‘mature’education
Profil de formation générale des élèves qui terminent le
systems, but are seen as abrupt, fragmented and too
cycle de deux premières années de l’enseignement
demanding for most African countries like the
secondaire, Kigali, MINEPRISEC, 1992.
Seychelles; and (iv) teachers’
involvement in the for-


Réforme de l’enseignement et identification des besoins,
mulation of educational objectives is limited, they thus
table ronde sectorielle sur l’éducation, Kiga l i ,
feel insufficiently consulted and valued. The following
MINEDUC, 1979.
problems relate specifically to the curriculum: (i) cur-
La politique et la planification de l’éducation au
riculum models are academically oriented, especially
R w a n d a, Kigali, MINEPRISEC/MINESUPRES,
at the secondary level which continues to empha-
1995.
size the requirements of international examinations; (ii)
Étude du secteur de l’éducation au Rwanda, Kigali,
there is limited training for subject leaders in schools,
MINEDUC, 1998.
which means that they are unable to provide support to
Ntagaramba F. Johnson, Historique de l’enseignement
fellow teachers and monitor curriculum imple-
t e chnique et professionnel au Rwanda, K i ga l i ,
mentation; (iii) perceptions of students’ability are condi-
MINEDUC, 2000.
tioned by rigid streaming from the fourth year of prima-
N t a garamba F. Johnson, A p e rçu gé n é ral sur les
ry school; (iv) teachers have been enjoying greater auton-
nouveaux
prog rammes
de
l’enseignement
omy in school-based curriculum planning and design,
secondaire, Kigali, 2001.
but they have difficulty balancing this new role alongside
many others expected of them; (vi) there are shortages of
teaching and learning materials and equipment, and also
10. Seychelles
financial constraints which have limited the implementa-
tion of the revised curricula; (vii) teachers resist the use
Marie-Therese Purvis
of innovatory teaching styles; and (viii) too much time is
spent on teaching languages, thus sidelining other sub-
The Seychelles education system is characterized by a
jects.
comprehensive co-educational system which is available
free of charge for a period of thirteen years, and a system
II. SOLUTIONS
of further and higher education available to those
students who meet the selection criteria appropriate to a
A number of initiatives aimed at bringing about
particular course of study or training on offer. Pre-school
qualitative improvement in the education system have
education is not compulsory, but almost all children from
been taken over the past few years. These include: (i) the
3 to 6 years attend. Primary schooling is compulsory for
introduction of school development planning in all State
children from age 6 years upwards, and there are twenty-
schools; (ii) a rev i ew and reorganization of school
four district primary schools. Secondary education is
management structures; (iii) the setting up of a quality
compulsory up to completion of level 4 (S4) and there
assurance service for schools; (iv) strengthening of
are eleven regional schools. The final years of secondary
parental involvement in school life and the establishment
education are modified to accommodate an option
of national consultation structures between students,
system that includes core academic and technical
teachers, parents and other stakeholders; and (v) the
education. There are a number of full-time further
establishment of a National Institute of Education to
education and training institutions, but there are no
ensure a more co-ordinated approach to teacher
universities in the Seychelles. In order to cater for this
education and training, and an overall review of the
lack of a university, a number of linkage programmes
national curriculum. A general review of the curriculum
58

is currently in progress, and many teachers have been
Mohamed Abdulkadir Nur
i nvo l ved in this process that has facilitated and
contributed to the question of ownership. Among other
Before independence, Somalia was divided into two
strategies that have attempted to combat the curricular
parts—the Italian ‘Trust Te r r i t o r y ’ and the British
problems experienced include the following: (i) teacher
protectorate—which later merged to form the Somali
in-service and subject leader training related to the
Republic. Thus, areas under the Italian colony followed
revised curriculum is in progress; (ii) technical education
a curriculum whose medium of instruction was Italian,
is also under review; and (iii) the School Improvement
while English was used in the British protectorate. After
Programme, which promotes students’achievements and
independence, the new republic inherited 233 primary
school empowerment, is being carried out at different
and twelve secondary schools of different origins and
levels of schooling and within various subjects.
philosophies from the colonial powers. Somalia gained
its independence in 1960, and ten years later the country
III. EDUCATIONAL REFORMS
was plagued by a civil war that lasted for twenty-one
years. By 1991, this war had ceased, but the education
The Catholic Church established formal schooling in
system had disintegrated beyond repair.
1841 and for many years it ended after six years of
primary schooling, but in 1902 two religious secondary
I. PROBLEMS WITH THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
schools were established. Both were affiliated to the
Cambridge Examinations syndicate that still prevails
Some of the most serious problems include the
today. Secondary schools offering three-year courses
following: (i) before the civil war, the problem was
were established by the 1960s. From the 1980s the
inadequate financing, but now there is no financing at all;
following changes were introduced: a new system of
(ii) even before the war the quality of teacher edu-
nine years of free basic primary education; two years of
cation had deteriorated as recruitment at that time
National Youth Service which started in 1982 up to 1998;
required political correctness; (iii) a whole Somali
and two or more years of post-secondary education and
generation has lost the chance for quality education
training offered free of charge and on a competitive
during the twenty-one years of war; (iv) there are no
basis.
educational facilities, textbooks and instructional
Since the 1990s, new secondary schools have been
materials; (v) there is no unified curriculum; (vi) there is
built in all ten regions. The primary school curriculum
no standardized assessment system and certification; and
has been revised and made more relevant to the local
(vii) school administrative and management skills are
context, while the secondary school curriculum now
very weak. Problems that are particularly concerned with
includes training in applied vocational skills. A joint
the curriculum include: (i) the former curriculum
Bachelor of Education scheme in collaboration with
document of 1986 was not specific on curriculum con-
Sussex University in the United Kingdom has been
tent and objectives; (ii) the textbooks written in Somali
established, and the Seychelles Polytechnic provides
for the subjects of Arabic and Islam do not reach beyond
business, tourism, technical and vocational courses. The
grade 4; and (iii) parents appear to have lost their confi-
School of Continuing Education promotes adult learning
dence in primary education due to the fact that almost
and helps to reduce illiteracy, not only among adults but
50% of teachers have never received any pre-service
also for those out-of-school children who are beyond
training and textbooks are very scarce.
school-going years. Having adjusted to the more
general, worldwide trends in educational provision, a
II. SOLUTIONS
process of consolidation, with a clear focus on the
enhancement of quality education throughout the educa-
One of the natural requirements for the new education
tion system, has been followed in the reforms of the
system was people’s desire to regain what had been
1990s.
lost—the old system, and particularly the sight of chil-
dren in school uniforms going to school with books hap-
IV. SPECIAL ISSUES
pily determined to work towards their future. Thus, a
school system similar to the old one has been recreat-
The turning point in the democratization of education
ed—eight years of primary education and four years of
took place in 1977 with the introduction of national goals
secondary education. The new development of commu-
guided by the principles of ‘education for life’,
nity ownership of schools is still regarded with suspicion
‘education for all’ and ‘education for personal and
by government officials. Other needs include: (i) second
national development’. This entailed a shift away from
chance
education
for
ove r-age
students;
(ii)
the British model of education. These principles, which
remuneration for teachers commensurate with their skills
underline the significance of education for liv i n g
provided by either the government or by donor agencies;
together in all societies, have been part of and guided the
(iii) pre-service teacher training, as well as in-service
formation of a new curriculum in the Seychelles.
training for those teachers who need it; (iv) schools
should be rebuilt and refurnished, and textbooks and
11. Somalia
t e a c h e r s ’ guides printed according to the rev i s e d
national curriculum; (v) principals and management staff
59

should receive proper training; and (vi) standardized
education, to open new schools and to upgrade the
assessment procedures should be introduced and
existing ones.
certification for grade eight examinations.
IV. SPECIAL ISSUES
III. EDUCATIONAL REFORM
When the civil war in Somalia stopped in 1991, almost
The first educational reform adopted was the
all public schools were either destroyed or had been
introduction of co-education in 1963 whereby the
seized by militiamen, whilst some had become
existing separate schools for boys and girls were merged.
graveyards or camps for displaced persons. As a result,
In 1965, the two systems inherited from the colonial
the problems facing education in Somalia have
states were unified and a 4+4+4 system adopted. The
multiplied after the civil war. The main problem was that
medium of instruction at primary level is Arabic, while
the war practically wiped out the whole system and all
English is used for the intermediate and secondary
educational materials were looted—doors and roofing
levels. In 1972, the first Somali alphabet using Latin
materials were taken and printed materials lost. The
script was introduced. A year later, the then government
rebuilding of the Somali education has depended upon
ordered the nationalization of all private schools that had
foreign aid from international organizations such as
previously followed different curricula and used various
UNESCO, the United Nations, UNICEF, the European
media of instruction. The Somali language became a
Commission, and numerous international and local
medium of instruction first in the lower and later in the
NGOs. As the years go by, the country will be faced with
higher classes for all public schools. In 1975, free and
the responsibility of funding its own educational
compulsory education was introduced with the objective
initiatives and slowly reducing its dependence on donors
of attaining universal primary education. In 1986,
and foreign aid.
another reform took place whereby a decree wa s
promulgated allowing privatization of schools and the
Notes
national curriculum was revised. The government policy
1. Ces documents résultent d’une contraction du tex t e
towards education has been to extend education to all
présenté par le participant national au séminaire-atelier.
sectors of society and to all areas, to expand and improve
teacher training, to provide facilities for primary
60

ANNEX I :
List of participants/Liste des participants
BURUNDI
Dr. Jacinta Ndambuki
Research Programmes Co-ordinator
M. Pascal Mukene
Kenya Institute of Education
Directeur Général des Bureaux Pédagogiques
P.O Box 30123, NAIROBI,
Ministère de l’Education
Fax: 254 2 25 31 33
BP 1990, BUJUMBURA,
Fax: 257 223755
Mr. Benjamin Kapkiai Sogomo
Secretary, Teachers Service Commission
COMORES
P.O. Private Bag, NAIROBI
M. Othmane Abdou
Pr. David Serem
Président de la Commission générale
Deputy Vice Chancellor
des programmes d’enseignement
Maseno University, Box 333, MASENO,
BP 768, MORONI,
Fax: 254 3 55 12 21
Fax: 269 73 22 22
Mr. Juma Mwachihi
ERYTHRÉE
Secretary/Chief Executive,
Kenya National Examinations Council
M. Tesfamicael Gerahtu
P.O Box 73598, NAIROBI,
Directeur General
Fax: 254 2 22 60 32
Department of General Education
Ministry of Education
Mr. D.K. Sang
P.O Box 1056, ASMARA,
SDDE/PE
Fax: 291 1 20 16 59
Dr. Joseph Malasu
ETHIOPIE
Senior Lecturer
Curriculum development
Sir Dereje Terefe
Kennyatta University
Directeur, Institute of Curriculum
Box 60438, NAIROBI,
Development and Research
Tel: 254 2 81 09 01
s/o Ethiopia National Agency for UNESCO
P.O Box 2996, ADDIS ABABA,
Dr. Nkonge George Reche
Fax: 251 1 55 16 55
Chairman,
Department of Administration and Planning,
KENYA
University of Nairobi.
P.O Box 30197, NAIROBI,
Dr. Gabriel Muita
Fax: 254 2 33 68 85
Director,
Kenya Institute of Education
Miss Perpetual Weru
P.O Box 30123, NAIROBI,
Principal, Murang’a Primary Teachers College
Fax: 254 2 25 31 33
MURANGA T.T.C,
Fax: 015164096
Mr. D.K. Rono
Chief Inspector of schools
Mr. James Ngumy
Ministry of Education
Teachers Service Commission
Kenya Institute of Education
Dr. Godfrey Mse
P.O Box 30231, NAIROBI,
Lecturer, Kenyatta University
Tel: 254 2 74 99 00
P.O Box 1131, Ruaraka, NAIROBI,
Tel: 254 2 44 09 66
Mr. Dinda Jakanyakwarka
Assistant Chief Inspector of Schools
Ministry of Education
61

Mr. Joseph Ogonyo Indire
MOGADISHU
Principal curriculum Specialist
Fax: 65 22 00
Kenya Institute of Education
AUTRE PARTICIPANT:
Mr. Obadiah Mucheru
Kenyan national exams Council
M. Michael Manana
P.O Box 73598, NAIROBI,
Education International,
Fax: 254 2 22 60 32
P.O Box 725, LOME
MAURITIUS
EXPERTS INVITÉS PAR LE BIE
Mr. Hiranand Dansinghani
Dr. Audrey Osle,
Directeur adjoint Chargé du National Centre
Professor of Education
For Curriculum Research and Development
Director of the Centre for Citizenship
(NCCRD)
Studies in Education,
22A Dr Rouget street
University of Leicester,
Flat n°6
21 University Road,
PORT LOUIS,
GB-LEICESTER LE1 7RF
Fax: 230 208 53 90
Fax: +44 (0)116 252 3653
Tel: +44 (0)116 252 3688
NIGERIA
M. Hugo Labate
Mrs. Ebele Maduewesi
C o o r d i n a t e u r, Education en sciences, Ministry of
Executive Secretary of the Nigerian
Education, Pizzurno 935 1020 BUENOS A I R E S ,
Educational Research and Development Council
Argentina,
(NERDC)
Tel: 54-11-4129-1000 ext. 7462,
Sheda Lokoja – Kaduna Rd. PMB 91
Fax: 54 11 4129 1506 / 4738
ABUJA,
Tel. 234 9 52 30 548
Dr. Luis Enrique López
Directeur,
RWANDA
Programme for Bilingual
Intercultural Education (PROEIB),
Mr. Johnson Funga-Ntagaramba
University of Cochabamba
Chef de Division Enseignement secondaire
Plaza Sucre s/n campus Mayor de San Simon
Centre National de Développement des Programmes.
Apartado 6759, COCHABAMBA, Bolivie,
MINEDUC /RWANDA, B.P 622, KIGALI,
Tel: (591 4) 25 40 46, Fax: (591 4) 23 58 02
Fax: 250 82162
Dr. Jens Naumann
RÉPUBLIQUE DEMOCRATICQUE
Professor,
DU CONGO
Department of Education and Social Sciences
University of Münster
Mme. Gertrude Mikekemo Akumuntu
Institut 1, fachbereich Erziehungswissenschaft
Inspecteur de l’Enseignement Primaire
und Sozialwissenschaften
Avenue des Ecoles
Georgskommende 33 / 48143, MÜNSTER, Germany,
c/o Division de l’E.P.S.P
Tél: 0251-8329201, Fax: 0251-8324242
GOMA/NORD KIVU
LES AUTORITÉS KENYANES
SEYCHELLES
S. Exc. M. H. Kosgei
Mme. Marie-Therese Purvis
Minister for Education
Directrice de l’Institut National de l’Education
Ministère de l’Education, Mont Fleuri
S. Exc. M. Ndambuki
B.P 48 VICTORIA. MAHÉ,
Minister for Science and Technology
Fax: 248224859
Pr. J.C. Kiptoon, EBS., Ph.D.
SOMALIE
Permanent Secretary
Ministry of Education, Science and Technology
Mr. Mohamed Abdulkadir Nur
Vice Chairman of Imam Shafici
Mrs. Naomy Wagai,
Educational Foundation
Director of Education
62

M. Erastus Kiugu
UNESCO–PEER
Secretary-General
Kenyan National Comission for UNESCO (KNATCOM)
Dr. Nureldin Mohamed Hamed Satti
Director of UNESCO-PEER
Mrs. Mercy Mungai
P.O Box 30592, NAIROBI,
Deputy Secretary-General – KNATCOM
Fax: 254 2 21 59 91
M. Peter Aura
Deputy Secretary-General – KNATCOM
Dr. Mudiappasa Devadoss
Coordinateur de programm
Mrs. Ruth Charuiyot – KNATCOM
eMail: m.devadoss@unesco.org
Mrs. Florence Okwiri – KNATCOM
M. Ted Groenewegen
Coordinateur de Projet
Ms. Grace Mbabu – KNATCOM
M. Adan Mohamed Moallim
Mrs. Doreen Ooko – KNATCOM
Co-ordinator Education development centre
LES MEMBRES DU PERSONNEL DE L’UNESCO
Mr. George Muito
Co-ordinateur de Projet
UNESCO PROAP
UNESCO-BIE
Mrs. Lucille Gregorio
Specialist in Science and Technology Education
Dr. Cecilia Braslavsky
920 Sukhumvit Road
Directrice
BANGKOK, Thailande,
Bureau International d’éducation
Tel. 66 2 391 05 77, Fax. 66 2 391 08 66
Dr. John Aglo
BUREAU DE L’UNESCO À NAIROBI
Chargé du Programme Afrique
Pr. Paul Vitta
Ms. Mankolo Lethoko, Consultante
Directeur, Bureau de l’UNESCO à Nairobi
P.O Box 30592
NAIROBI, Fax: 254 2 21 59 91
M. Christophe Kibrige
Administrateur
Mrs. Alice Ochanda
Ms. Julie Merab
Mr. Maurice Assudi
Mr. Peter Shilima
Mr. Charles Matendecha
Mr. George Musungu
Ms. Elisabeth Mogues
63

ANNEX II:
Guidelines for the preparation of contributions
The information note accompanying this document provides the general context for the contributions. Written contributions should
essentially be based on point (a) of section I (entitled Objectives) and should take into consideration the fact that we are basically
interested in national experiences of curriculum reform and the description of strategies developed to overcome the problems
encountered by the education system.
In some countries, the conduct of reforms and their introduction is carried out in a more or less systematic manner, often fol-
lowing a plan, which can be described in a seminar/workshop.
The existence of such a plan can only make it easier to describe. Nevertheless, with or without such a structure, it will be nec-
essary to concentrate on or emphasize the following points:
I. The main lines of the reform, by giving:
1. A brief description of the basic characteristics of the present reform:
- its assumptions;
- its objectives;
- the reasons for it (in relation to preceding reforms or the prior situation);
- those involved (their freedom of manoeuvre; in other words, their relationship with the central, local,
municipal, departmental or regional governments).
2. A short analysis of the text of the current reform, particularly concerning its objectives:
• Identifying:
- its structure (the structures introduced or foreseen by the text and forming part of the reform);
- the teaching language(s);
- the curriculum (the teaching programmes described or foreseen by the text and supporting the reform);
- the publications to be produced (creating them, printing them, etc.).
• Stressing:
- the strengths and weaknesses of the reform text;
- the difficulties encountered or the problems observed during its implementation.
• Indicating:
- the strategies and methods adopted to implement the text or to overcome the problems encountered;
- the measures adopted or the concrete actions taken or foreseen in the text to improve, modify or correct its
shortcomings, or to overcome the problems encountered or the failures that have occurred;
- the measures adopted or the actions taken to support or promote its strong points.
3. A short analysis of the text of the current reform concerning:
- the local situation and the needs of the people;
- any reflection of the major trends taking place on a global level;
- the challenges resulting from these trends.
• The comparison of the measures foreseen in the reform with the actual situation on the ground, asking, for
example:
- if these measures were of a “managerial” nature, in other words, were they directed by the concept of
“modernization” or of leading the population towards a better social and economic reality, but without
paying much attention to their actual requirements; or
- on the contrary, were these measures specifically designed to satisfy the people’s actual expectations and
requirements, in other words, did they attempt to reflect the socio-cultural environment of the people and
provide them with the material and intellectual means enabling them to master their own destiny;
• In examining the extent to which the text of the reform took into account the new world situation, the
challenges it poses and the values to be taught to confront them.
II. The linkages between curriculum reform and curriculum development
This involves making a short presentation of the curriculum development process compared to the objectives laid down
in the official texts on education. Your answers might attempt to respond to the following questions:
• What are the objectives of the basic State texts devoted to education?
• To what extent do the curriculum and the textbooks prepared enable these objectives to be reached? What
are the problems?
• What teaching methods are employed? Is it teaching by objectives? By competence? Active? Co-operative?
Differentiated? Intercultural? Pupil-centred? Etc.
• What outcomes are expected to be reached by the teaching methods employed?
64

• What methods and strategies have been introduced to develop the curricula?
• What organizational method has been foreseen for learning?
- Is it the traditional method using the principle of isomorphism in which teaching reflects each discipline?
- Or does it adopt an interdisciplinary approach?
• How much attention is devoted to the interdisciplinary approach in each subject?
These are a few guidelines that may serve in the preparation of your contribution. These are only proposals to be mod-
ified as you see fit.
65

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