Acknowledgements

The initiative to develop the module was a response by the UNESCO Office
for the Pacific States towards addressing the serious situation of teacher
competency in its member states. It would not have been possible without
the financial support from the United Kingdom Development for
International Development (DFID), Government of Japan and Australia
through AusAID.

The contribution of the South Pacific Board for Educational Assessment,
who was willing to assist on a consultancy basis, to the development of the
module is acknowledged. Their willingness to go into partnership with the
UNESCO Office for the Pacific States in the implementation of the module
not only to teacher training institutions but also to teachers in general is
generally appreciated.

The positive support given by the Ministries of Education as well as teachers
in the region throughout the implementation of the module is also
acknowledged.

Special acknowledgement goes to the Vanuatu Ministry of Education
especially the Vanuatu Teachers College, Zone Curriculum Advisors, and
Provincial Education Officers in all six provinces in Vanuatu for their
contributions made during the development of the module.

From the UNESCO Office for the Pacific States and the South Pacific Board
for Educational Assessment, we hope that the module, “Are Our Pupils
Learning? How Do We Know?
” would assist in some way in all efforts to
improve the quality of teaching and learning in each one of the Pacific island
nations.












ii

Content











Page

Chapter

One.
Introduction


1.1
Introduction


1
1.2
Teacher
Competencies



3
1.3
Competency-based
Approach



7


Chapter Two.
Setting the platform



2.1 Setting the platform for learning



9

2.2 Do you know your pupils?




12

2.3 Creating the right classroom environment
16

2.4 How familiar are you with the course document?
24

2.5 Objectives and pupil learning outcomes


28

2.6 From Objectives to learning outcomes


31
2.7
Unpacking
objectives


36
2.8
Skill
levels


46

2.9 Achievement levels





51
2.10
Course
presentation


55

2.11 Basic skills; literacy and numeracy


57

Chapter Three. Planning for teaching or learning


3.1 Planning for teaching; where do we start?

59
3.2
Framing
a
lesson
plan


61

3.3 Description of a lesson plan format


64
3.4
Preparing
sound
lesson
plans


67

3.5 Classroom – a place where mistakes are useful
69

3.6 Exemplars – models for learning



71
3.7
Available
resources

74

3.8 Feed forward – preparation for learning


76

Chapter Four.
Knowing your stuff

4.1
Knowing
what
to
teach


78

4.2 Preparing a format for learning outcomes

84

4.3 “Writing” – A sample strand



93

4.4 Matching questions to learning outcomes

99

4.5 Samples from different courses



108


4.5.1 Sample materials for a Language course
108


4.5.2 Sample materials for Mathematics course
112


4.5.3 Sample materials for a Social Science course
119


4.5.4 Sample material for a Science course

124


Chapter Five.
Developing pupil activities




5.1 Developing activities that promote learning 129
5.2
Formal
classroom
activities
135
5.2.1
Problem
solving
136


5.2.2 Graphing – Pie and Bar charts


139
5.2.3
Calculations 144

iii

5.2.4
Comprehension
passage
146
5.2.5
Making
hypothesis 151
5.2.6
Investigation
report 153
5.2.7
Performances 156
5.3
Informal
activities
159
5.3.1
Observing
your
pupils
161
5.3.2
Questioning
166

Chapter Six.
Monitoring pupil achievements



6.1
Monitoring
achievements 170

6.2 Linking achievements to learning outcomes

174
6.3
Providing
feedback 179
6.4
Promoting
progress 183

Chapter Seven. Records, Recording and Reporting

7.1
Records
and
recording
186
7.2 Record
of
achievements
193
7.3 Progress
records
205
7.4 Portfolios
210
7.5 Reporting
achievements
215
7.6 Helping
those
needing
help
224

Summary








231

Glossary
of
terms 232




iv









Chapter One

1.1 Introduction

With the increasing call for improving the quality of basic education in
developing and least developed countries, the level of competency of
teachers has been identified as crucial in any effort to improving education
quality. This is certainly the case in the Pacific region.

The development of this module, focusing on improving the competency of
teachers, is a response not only to the global effort to improve education
quality, which is central to the achievement of Education for All (EFA), but
also to the realization by Pacific Education Ministers, through the Form
Basic Education Action Plan (FBEAP), of the important role teachers play
in improving the quality of education in the region. With a significant
number of untrained teachers in the various countries in the region, their
competency as teachers is a serious matter. This problem is compounded
by the lack of focus by teacher training institutions in the region on the
competency of teachers in their training programme.

Expectations of teachers from all sectors are high. They are expected to be
experts in one or more specific subjects, thus demanding a minimum level
of academic qualifications. On top of that they are also expected to
continually update their expertise and knowledge in order to provide
pupils with the knowledge and skills they need to be able to cope with the
increasingly complex community they live in. Moreover, they are also
expected to develop teaching and pedagogical competence to be able to
effectively pass on the appropriate knowledge and skills to pupils. This
demands not only qualified but also highly competent teachers, something
that is still very much a challenge to many of the teachers in the region.

As professionals, teachers are expected to be able to respond to an
increasing range of societal demands, but how are they able to cope with
such expectations? Unfortunately the increasing expectations on teachers
are often accompanied by fewer resources as well as increasing class sizes
thus making it a huge challenge for many teachers. Because of this,
teachers are at risk of becoming casualties of the situation rather than
becoming catalysts of change throughout the teaching/learning process. In
order for countries to meet the ever changing and increasing demands on
teachers throughout the 21st century, the authorities in the various
countries need to foster a well qualified, well-equipped and motivated
teaching force.

Recent educational reforms in numerous countries throughout the region,
as a response to increasing call for better quality education for all have put
pressure especially on least developed and developing nations, to focus
their efforts and resources on improving pupils’ educational outcomes, in
order to ensure that pupils acquire the knowledge and skills they need to
continue learning throughout life.


1

These high demands on teachers need to be carefully taken into
consideration especially when a significant proportion of the teaching force
do not have the qualifications and competency to carry out their expected
roles successfully. The discrepancies are most notable in many of the
countries in the Pacific region. Comparing the requirements for becoming a
“qualified teacher” with the actual level of qualifications of existing
teaching forces provides an indication of the efforts which countries will
need to make in order to bring all their teachers up to the level of today’s
standards.

In situations where a significant proportion of the teaching force do not
meet the minimum academic standard required, in-service training and
teacher upgrading are crucial. While the focus in many countries in the
Pacific are still on the pre-service training of teachers, the need for in-
service upgrading, updating and renewal of knowledge, skills and
capabilities of serving teachers is now widely acknowledged as a high
priority. And with the pace of change both in content and pedagogy,
continual updating of knowledge and skills of teachers is required. In-
service training should therefore be an essential component of the career
development of teachers in all countries.

The teacher issue in many countries in the region is not only one of
numbers, it is also one of appropriate training and competency to teach
effectively. According to UNESCO (2004), a large proportion of primary
school teachers in many developing countries including the Pacific lack the
necessary academic qualifications, training and mastery of content.

In the Pacific the proportion varies considerably with the situation in the
Cook Is, Fiji, Niue, Samoa and Tonga where most of the primary school
teachers have gone through formal teacher training compared to other
countries where a significant proportion of the teachers do not possess the
necessary qualifications let alone the necessary skills to be a “competent
or a professional teacher”.

The main focus of this module is not the academic qualifications of
teachers as it assumes that teachers are familiar with the pedagogy. The
focus however is on the level of competency of teachers and their ability to
use the appropriate and relevant methods to gather information that would
enable them to monitor what each pupil is able to do and in particular
what they are not able to do so that they can be given the specific help
they need. Gathering information on pupil achievement in relation to
expectations is only half of the story. Being able to use such information
effectively to enhance the teaching and hence pupils’ learning is far more
important. Efforts to gather the relevant information would go to waste if
the information is not used to achieve the purpose for which it was
collected.








2


1.2 Teacher
Competencies



There is increasing recognition of the role of teachers in improving the
functioning of education systems and ensuring positive learning outcomes.
But do government policies consistently reflect this awareness? How do
they help teachers promote excellence and thus influence (improve) the
levels of learning achievement of pupils?

Expectations of teachers from all sectors are high. They are expected to be
experts in one or more specific subjects, thus demanding a minimum level
of academic qualifications. In addition, teachers are also expected to
continually update their expertise and knowledge in order to provide
pupils with the knowledge and skills they need to be able to cope with the
increasingly complex community they live in. Moreover, they are also
expected to develop teaching and pedagogical competence to be able to
effectively pass on the appropriate knowledge and skills to pupils. This
demands not only qualified but also highly competent teachers, something
that is still very much a challenge to many of the teachers in the region.

Every teacher teaching in a school, whether trained or not, is expected to
possess, or work towards possessing, key competencies and skills which
are recognised nationally as crucial for the achievement of the overall
quality of education in a country. Expectations and reality however are two
different things as many of those operating as teachers in the classroom in
many of our countries haven’t had the opportunity to acquire the
appropriate skills and competencies.

With teachers playing a vital role in the education process, it is important
that they possess at least some, if not all, of the competencies and skills
necessary for teaching. These competencies and skills are often included
as part of the overall policies of a school or education authority and form
the basis for the recruitment of teachers. They are also used as the basis
for identifying shortcomings of teachers in an effort to identify areas for
improvement for incorporation into in-service training programmes.

Some of the competencies and skills necessary for teachers, especially new
teachers and student teachers, may include:
• subject matter
• communication and approaches to teaching and learning
• classroom organisation and management
• assessment of pupil achievements against learning outcomes
• values, attributes and abilities integral to teachers
• whole school and national issues

Subject matter knowledge

To be able to fulfil their roles successfully, every teacher is expected to be
able to demonstrate a sound knowledge of, and practical skills in, the
subject or subjects forming the content of his/her teaching, at a level
which allows him/her to stimulate and challenge pupils, and to recognise

3

and address barriers to pupils' learning specific to the subject being
taught. At the same time the teacher should be able to play a key role in
developing pupils' skills in literacy and/or numeracy and be able to use
ICT and appreciate how to apply it effectively in the teaching and learning
process.

In addition to the knowledge of the subject matter, teachers are required to
be able to put together teaching programmes and lessons which would
ensure continuity and progression in every pupil's learning. This would
require every teacher to have knowledge of the learning process,
curriculum issues as well as child development.

Communication and approaches to teaching and learning

One of the key competencies in teaching is the ability to be able to
communicate sensitively with every pupil in such a way that not only
motivates and sustains the interest of all pupils in the class, but
encourages the development of good rapport between the teacher and all
the pupils in the class. Good communication means the teacher is able to
use language that is appropriate to the pupils in terms of their age, level of
development, gender, ethnic and socio-economic background as well as
individual pupil’s learning styles and needs.

To be effective, teachers need to be able to explain to and communicate
with every pupil clearly and in a stimulating manner and able to question
pupils effectively, and able to respond to their questions and support their
contribution to any discussion that takes place. They should also be able
to employ a range of teaching strategies and methodologies to reinforce
and extend work in class in an effort to use strategies that are appropriate
to the subject, topic and needs of the pupils.

Being able to select and use in a considered way, and in a number of
different learning and teaching situations, a wide variety of appropriate
resources is part of what teachers are required to possess as well as being
able to demonstrate the ability to teach individuals, groups and the class.
This involves being able to set expectations and pace of work which make
appropriate demands on all pupils and ensure that the more able and less
able pupils are effectively challenged. Teachers need to be able to identify
and respond appropriately to those pupils with learning difficulties and
devise strategies, or seek assistance if necessary, to cater for their specific
educational needs.

Effective communication skills also require teachers to be able to respond
appropriately to cultural, gender, linguistic, religious and social differences
amongst pupils especially those from minority or vulnerable groups.
Encouraging pupils to take initiatives in, and become responsible for their
own learning is a desirable skill that teachers need to be able to
communicate effectively with their pupils.

Classroom organisation and management

Teachers, both new and experienced, are expected to be able to organise
classes and lessons to ensure that all pupils are productively employed
when working individually, in groups or as a class as part of learning
activities. This involves the ability to demonstrate knowledge about, and to

4

apply, the principles and practices which underlie good discipline and
which promote positive behaviour among pupils.

Effective classroom organisation and management involves creating and
maintaining a stimulating, purposeful, orderly and safe learning
environment for all pupils so that their behaviours are fairly, sensitively
and consistently managed throughout the lesson by using appropriate
rewards (both positive and negative).

Good classroom organisation and management enables teachers to deal
effectively, by means of relevant and appropriate strategies, with classroom
or school issues such as bullying, etc and are able to evaluate and justify
their actions especially when managing the behaviour of pupils.

Assessment

One of the competencies that is crucial for all teachers in the classroom,
and is the focus of this module, relates to teachers’ ability to collect and
use information that would enable them to decide on the progress and
achievements of pupils. Unfortunately this is one of the competencies that
is either neglected or not given enough attention both in the teacher pre-
service as well as in the teacher in-service training programmes, yet every
teacher is expected to be able to carry out this role.

Teachers who have acquired this competency are expected to be able to
demonstrate an understanding of the principles of assessment and the
different kinds of assessment which one may use. Further, they should be
able to develop simple instruments to assess the achievement of each pupil
in line with school assessment policies and against national standards as
well as being able to use assessment information to monitor, record and
report on pupils’ achievements, needs and progress. More importantly they
should be able to use results of assessment to identify pupil’s strengths
and weaknesses and to provide regular constructive feedback to each pupil
as well as identifying appropriate strategies for addressing pupils’
weaknesses. They should be in a position to use the results of the
assessment to evaluate the effectiveness of their teaching and to determine
how to improve on their teaching.

Understanding School and national issues

Teachers to be effective in their job need to demonstrate an understanding
of school policies and procedures as well as an understanding of the
national education system. They also need to demonstrate understanding
of the way roles and responsibilities are shared among staff in the school
and how to obtain help especially from staff within the school, including
those with responsibility for the curriculum, guidance, etc. Teachers need
to be able to demonstrate an awareness of their responsibilities for
contributing to the ethos of the school and promoting positive
relationships among staff, parents and pupils.

Teachers also need to be able to report to parents about the progress of
their pupils and discuss matters related to their personal and social
development in a sensitive and constructive way. They are also expected to
have an understanding of the way roles and responsibilities are shared
among staff and how to obtain help from staff within the school, including

5

those with responsibility for the curriculum, guidance, learning support
and staff development and are willing and able to contribute to the extra-
curricular life of the school.

The values, attributes and abilities integral to teachers

Teachers are expected to be committed to and enthusiastic about teaching
as a profession and be able to encourage pupils to become learners and be
committed to promoting pupils’ achievements and raising their
expectations of themselves and others, in collaboration with colleagues
and parents. Teachers as professionals are also expected to also value and
promote the moral and spiritual well-being of the pupils and self-evaluate
the quality of their teaching and to set and achieve targets for professional
development and exercise sound judgement in making decisions. They
should also value and promote equality of opportunity and fairness and
adopt non-discriminatory practices, in respect of age, disability, gender,
race or religion and show commitment to undertaking continuing
professional development in order to keep up-to-date with and respond to
changes in education.



































6



1.3 Competency-Based
Approach



In many of the countries in our region emphasis on the quality of teachers
has been on qualifications with many countries focusing on improving the
proportion of teachers meeting the minimum teaching qualification. So
much so that in some countries, meeting the minimum qualification is
considered as synonymous with quality. The proportion of teachers
meeting the minimum qualifications becomes an important indicator of the
quality of education in a country.

However, acquiring the minimum qualification is no guarantee that quality
would improve. Researches have shown that although meeting the
minimum qualification is important, the educational background of
teachers also play a key role and that pupils tend to learn more from
teachers with strong rather than weak academic skills (Ballou, 1996;
Ferguson and Ladd, 1996). Some however argue that it is the performance
of teachers in the classroom that make the difference.

Let us consider the specific situation in mathematics and the
competencies teachers need to successfully teach the subject. Studies
have found that in mathematics, as in most other subjects, the teacher’s
knowledge and ability are crucial. The issue of teacher knowledge as it
occurs in the context of the classroom is important and includes the
interactive and dynamic nature of teacher knowledge of the content of
mathematics, knowledge of pedagogy, knowledge of ability and level of
achievement of pupils and teachers’ beliefs.

Shulman (1988) proposed that a teacher’s knowledge and ability should
include; knowledge of a particular subject, knowledge of common teaching
ability, knowledge of pupil’ backgrounds (such as pupil’s learning ability,
age, etc.) and knowledge of the teaching environment (including social,
political and cultural aspects).

These are crucial information that not only teachers need to be aware of,
but in particular teacher trainers so as to ensure that they form part of the
teacher training programmes. In addition to the above, other dimensions
considered as crucial aspects especially for teacher training include:
• teacher’s teaching skills and competencies,
• ability to organize and present materials effectively during teaching,
• the learning environment created between students and teachers
and
• the teacher’s teaching attitudes.

The issue of teacher competency has become one of the areas of concern in
efforts to improve the quality of teaching and hence education quality.
Despite the general reservations some may have towards competency-
based approaches to teaching, teachers especially beginning teachers, view
teaching competency as crucial. They consider teaching competency as

7

providing a link between personal attributes (such as knowledge, values
and dispositions etc) and effective professional practice and performance.
Focus on teaching competencies is useful in that it provides a common
framework for collaboration between teacher trainers, education
authorities and student teachers. It could facilitate common
understandings of intended outcomes and appropriate activities, tasks and
processes. It could also provide a framework for in-service training
programmes for serving teachers as well as one for assessing student
teacher performance.

What each of these potential applications points to is the role of a
competency-based approach as an integrating mechanism that brings
together the development of attributes (knowledge, values, dispositions etc)
and effective professional practice. The difficult task for teacher educators
has always been to develop attributes in such a way that they contribute
directly to effective practice. Experience has shown that practising
teachers have difficulty drawing on the 'theoretical' aspects of the course in
their daily practice. Often this is reflected in teachers' dissatisfaction with
pre-service courses. A competency-based approach makes it clear that
knowledge on its own is not enough and (equally important) practice must
draw from that knowledge (and other attributes) to be truly effective.

The major implication of such an approach is that the practicum must be
powerfully integrated with the rest of the course - not only with the
curriculum and instruction units. In particular, it must be integrated with
the foundation and discipline subjects. A competency-based approach,
therefore, has the potential for developing coherence and focus in teacher
education courses.

The focus on teaching competencies by no means provide a solution to all
the problems confronted by teacher education and the limitations inherent
in them needs to be recognised. Focus on competencies is not only
considered as non-inclusive (Smith, 1994) but represent a particular view
of teachers' work and the teaching profession. It tends to focus on new
teachers rather than on the career needs of the teacher as a professional.

While beginning teachers cannot be expected to develop competencies that
require sustained autonomous practice, they must be able to work towards
that goal during their career. Competencies highlight the importance of
attributes such as knowledge and values but they in no way address the
issue of how beginning teachers are best provided with access to the
knowledge base of teaching. Who, for example, should provide beginning
teachers with an understanding of the subject knowledge that underpins
the school curriculum? While the need for subject knowledge is
undisputed, but how they get such knowledge is a matter of considerable
contestation.
Teaching competencies therefore are by no means a simple template for course
development and implementation. They are however tools that seem to have some
potential to assist teacher trainers in training teachers and student teachers in
their effort to be better equipped for the task. They could provide potential to
raise broader issues about their application to initial teacher education in
general. They appear to have the potential to contribute positively towards
improving the quality of teaching but they will by no means be the only way of
addressing the concerns about the competencies of teachers.

8



Chapter Two




2.1
Setting the platform for


learning



Imagine that a boat at its home port is scheduled to make a journey that
takes it to several islands as it makes its way to pick up both cargo and
people. The boat has a captain who is also the navigator, and a crew
eagerly looking forward to the journey.

Before the journey can begin there is a lot of planning and preparation
that has to be done. The boat has to be seaworthy and carrying all the
resources it needs for the journey. The captain is responsible for making
sure that everything is in place before the journey can begin. Of course, if
the captain is careless the boat could leave port without some of the
important work having been done, and this could lead to problems during
the journey.

The captain is in charge of the boat and crew, and if the journey is to be
successful, the captain needs to know the boat and crew very well. The
captain also needs to know what each of the crew is suppose to do.

The crew members will have different strengths and weaknesses, but for
the smooth running of the boat, the captain will have to make sure that
everyone works together. The captain too may have weaknesses when
working with the crew. They may not always understand exactly what he is
trying to say, and they may misunderstand what they are required to do.
Or they may not do the required work in the most appropriate way. If the
captain is smart, the weaknesses can be corrected, so that both the
captain and the crew benefit.

It may be that the crew members are new to the boat, and if so, the
captain will need time to discover their strengths and weaknesses. If the
captain is alert, crew weaknesses will be noticed and a little well directed
advice will help to reduce weakness and increase strengths. Even the crew
members with strengths can be encouraged to help the weaker members
and in this way the whole boat benefits, and the journey becomes
smoother and more efficient.

Of course each crew member needs to know exactly what is expected to be
done, and the captain will spend time, before each part of the journey,
making sure that the crew knows where they are heading and what job
has to be done to get there. The captain as navigator will set the course,
and will take the boat with its crew along that course.

As the boat proceeds, the captain will be continually checking to see that
the boat is on the correct course. To do this, navigation tools such as
compass, sextant and charts will provide information about the boat’s
progress. Currents, winds, rough weather may cause the boat to move

9

away from the intended course, and the navigation tools will tell the
captain how far off course the boat has traveled, and where the boat with
its crew is now positioned. With this information, the captain can plot a
path that will return the boat to the correct course.

Certain parts of the journey may be more difficult than others. There may
be big swells and winds that make things difficult for the crew. The deck
may become slippery, and the boat may pitch and toss from side to side. A
crew member may fall and break a leg, requiring special treatment in order
to recover. It may even happen that someone falls overboard and needs to
be rescued (though this would not happen if the captain ensured that all
crew members were protected by safety netting). It would be a very cold
hearted captain that left someone in the water and carried on without
them!!

As the boat proceeds it will successfully reach, in turn, each port along the
route to its home port.

Hopefully all the crew members will have enjoyed the journey; they will
have learnt new skills, will have overcome difficulties, will have contributed
to a healthy atmosphere on the boat, and will be looking forward to the
next journey.

Hopefully the captain will look back on the journey and feel that there had
been good preparation, that the course plotted served progress well, that
appropriate changes had been made to ease the passage, and that the
captaincy had brought the best out of the crew members.

Of course in this setting of a sea journey we see a parallel with the role of a
classroom teacher with a classroom full of children who are embarking on
a journey of their own.

The teacher, who is our captain, has the same responsibilities of planning
and traveling a journey; and the children who are our crew are taking that
journey. Notice that our children are not passengers, but are crew
members contributing to a successful journey.

The material to be taught is our course, and our ports of call are the
objectives to be reached. The techniques to be used for monitoring and
assisting progress are the navigational tools that the teacher needs.
Without such tools it would be difficult for the teacher not only to monitor
his/her pupils’ progress but also to help with those who need the teacher’s
help.

It is the hope of all teachers that the pupils in their care are learning. But
it would be a big mistake to rely on ‘hope’. Instead of saying “I hope the
pupils in my class are learning”, it would be better for you to be able to say
“I know for sure my pupils are learning”. There is a big difference between
‘hope’ and ‘certainty’. The teacher needs to find ways and means whereby
she can be certain that her pupils are learning what they are expected to
learn.

“Setting the Platform” is a crucial first step in ensuring that you do
everything needed to allow the best possible chance for your classroom to
be an environment in which pupils want to learn. It is the responsibility of

10

the school, especially the teacher, to ensure that the pupils see the
classroom as such and not a place of refuge where they spend most of
their day.

At first sight, there is no obvious link between ‘knowing the name of a
pupil’, and the improved chance of that pupil learning when in your
classroom. But knowing a pupil, recognizing a pupil, is just one small part
of the learning environment that you are providing.

This section on ‘Setting the Platform’ is intended to draw attention to the
various ways you as the teacher can prepare your learning environment
into an environment where each of your pupils feel ripe for learning.
Here are some key points to help you focus:
• The quality of learning is related to the quality of teaching. Therefore improving the
teaching will likely improve pupil’s learning.
• Pupils learn best if they are clear about what they are expected to learn. You therefore
need to make clear to the pupils what the learning outcomes are.
• Pupils benefit from feedback on their progress towards meeting the learning outcomes
if they receive it early and often.
• Your teaching will benefit if you receive feedback on class progress, as this will allow
you to modify your teaching to correct weaknesses that become evident from
feedback.
• Encouraging pupils to be involved in finding out how well they learn can stimulate
interest in, and ownership of, their progress.

Virtually teachers have little to no control over the number of pupils in the class.
However, they do have control over the environment in which they carry out their
teaching, that is, the classroom. This is very important, since the environment
they create would affect how well pupils in the class learn.

Imagine the first day of school and you are a new teacher in the school. You have
been assigned a class of 30 pupils most of whom you do not know. After the
initial shock, or maybe in response to it, what questions might you ask yourself?
Most likely the first question that would come to mind is “What do I do first?”
“What would be a good starting point?” These questions highlight some of the
critical aspects of working with pupils, that is, the question of managing the
classroom’s environment so that pupils feel at ease and motivated to learn.

The classroom environment encompasses the physical environment, including
learning resources for lessons, as well as the psycho-social environment; for
instance, using ways to promote learning. The teacher’s ability to create well-
managed physical and psycho-social environments can make the difference
between a conducive classroom environment and a classroom in chaos. Often
teachers find themselves in poor learning setting that provides challenges for both
the teacher and the pupils. As a teacher you will need all of your ingenuity and
planning skills to create a classroom environment that is a comfortable place for
pupils to learn.

The classroom is often called a “learning community” and is that place in the
school where you and your pupils can be found regularly, and one in which
teacher and pupils alike work together to learn new things.

This module will explore the use of navigational tools, and it is hoped that what you find in this module
will help you, the teacher, to organize, deliver and adapt your teaching in such a way that it provides
support which can lead to an improvement of learning by pupils.




11


2.2 Do you know your pupils?



When you meet your pupils for the first time, you would probably know
one or two of the pupils but if you are lucky you might know many of
them. As the weeks go by, you will come to know more and more of your
pupils although it might take more than you expect to know all of them.
However the time it takes teachers to know their pupils depends on the
effort the teacher makes to know “Who is who in your class”.

Getting to know your pupils is the first step in allowing you to teach them
effectively, as developing a relationship with each pupil provides a
communication route that can be helpful to both of you. During the first
two or three days of the new school year teachers usually conduct “getting
to know your pupils” activities in an effort to learn pupil names, to collect
information about each pupil’s family background and interests, and at
times assess each pupil’s knowledge and skills through diagnostic testing.

Getting to know each pupil requires a bit of effort, particularly in the first
few weeks, but the effort is worthwhile. Although it may seem trivial,
learning your pupils’ names is the first step in creating a comfortable
classroom that will encourage pupil’s involvement in the learning process.
Addressing your pupils by their name indicates to your pupils that you
care about them and that you are interested in each one of them.
Fortunately, there are many simple ways for learning pupils’ names and
getting to know them.

If you are an experienced teacher you will know that the pupils who are
noisy, confident, cheeky, funny or naughty are the ones whose names you
first learn. But the pupils who are naturally quiet or shy may be
overlooked while the others receive attention. It is important that you
make an effort to get to know all your pupils as soon as possible, otherwise
the more boisterous confident group will receive and perhaps demand your
attention at the expense of the quieter and often less confident class
members.

As time passes, and you make no effort to address the situation, it may
become worse, as these pupils realize that you do not know them or you
are ignoring them, and worst of all that you do not care about them. They
see that you ask Fred or Hannah questions, but never ask them. If you
continue to ignore these pupils they will soon feel isolated and develop
barriers around them. As a teacher you should make sure that such a
situation does not develop in your class, and if it does you should make
the effort to resolve it before it gets out of control.

You should become embarrassed about such a situation because the only
way to speak to David, the quiet boy at the end of the row, is to point at
him and ask the question, or, describe him not by name but by the place
he is sitting, such as; “The boy at the end of the front row, how would you
……”



12

So what can you do to speed up the process of getting to know your
pupils?

There are several ways you can use to speed up the process. One way
would be to get the pupils to make name cards that they either place in
front of them or wear during class, or have a piece of card standing up on
the desk in front of them carrying their names. Before class, and during it,
learn the names of pupils sitting along the aisles and call on them in class
by name. Progressively work your way to the centre of the room, calling
each pupil by name. This is good because it not only allows you to learn
their name, but it also allows other pupils in the class to learn each other’s
names.

Conducting interactive “getting to know you” activities during the first two
or three days of the school year to allow not only you to know your pupils
but also for pupils to learn about each other would help you in getting you
started especially if you a new teacher. You may use name games where
the game begins with a pupil giving his/her name. The second pupil gives
the name of the first person and his own name and the third student gives
his/her name and the names of the first two pupils. The chain continues
until it returns to the first person with the teacher preferably near the end.

Another “getting to know you” activity involves getting pupils to stand and
introduce themselves, one by one. Then divide the class into quarters and
get each quarter to try to remember the names of the other class members.
This will get the members of each quarter working together to see how
many they get right. Design an activity that ensures every one in the class
has the chance to speak, e.g. introducing them and saying where they
come from and who they are.

For example, all pupils and the teacher form a circle. The teacher then
moves to the centre and says his or her name. The teacher rejoins the
circle and the pupil to the left goes to the centre and says his or her name,
followed by the name of the teacher. The pupil rejoins the circle, and the
next pupil moves to the centre. This is repeated until all pupils have given
their name to the class.

Alternatively you could group pupils for pictures during the first or second
day of class. Posing for a picture often creates an informal, relaxed
environment. Pass the photographs around and have pupils write their
names next to their picture, or number each pupil and have them write
their names at the bottom of the photograph next to their number. If
photographs are not possible, have them draw pictures of themselves, or
put them in pairs and have them draw their partner. Encourage them to
draw something unique about their partner, such as a missing tooth or
curly hair, to help match pictures to faces. Add their names to the
pictures, and place the pictures near where they sit. If it is not possible to
put the pictures near the pupils, for the first week or two of school have
your pupils sit in rows, if they are not doing so already (you can break
them into learning groups later). Line up their pictures vertically on the
wall next to each row, with the top picture being the pupil nearest the wall,
and the bottom picture being the pupil furthest from the wall.


13


A typical seating plan - group
John
Mary
Peter
Teresa
Tom
Michael
Susan
Tim
David
Lucy
Roland
Lily
Simon
Kalo
Fatu
Bill
Willy
Kate
Lote
Wicky
Kalip
Amos
Malia
Lam
Teacher
Figure 2.2.3
Other seating arrangements together with seating plans may be devised to
suit the shape of your classroom, and the size of your class.
15


2.3 Creating the right classroom


environment


Making sure that pupils feel ready to learn is one of the biggest challenge
teachers face, especially if it is their first year teaching. All you have been
taught at teacher training institutions become useless if you cannot
connect with your pupils. You need to be able to create such environment
that would allow you to connect with your pupils while at the same time
able to manage your class effectively.

Make your pupils feel welcome in your classroom by making the effort to
learn about their backgrounds and interests. This will help you build a
sense of community and also can improve instructions. When you know
your pupils, you have a better understanding of their specific needs,
learning preferences and styles, relevant prior experience, and practical
issues that will play a role in the class. One way to get to know your pupils
is to make an effort to find out about their prior to current experiences.
This gives you a chance to acknowledge what each of your pupils already
knows and to emphasize what is of particular interests to them.

As you start your first day of class, encourage your pupils to talk about
themselves and their background, their hopes or concerns for the class.
Ask them how they learn best. Encourage pupils in your class to share
their backgrounds with each other. Invite older pupils to share experiences
that may help younger pupils appreciate working with those who are
different. Try to help older pupils understand what skills or abilities
younger pupils bring to the classroom as well. The task could be made
easier if you as the teacher are able to create the right classroom
environment where pupils feel motivated to learn not only from you but
from each other.

Getting to know each of your pupils both as a person and as a learner
helps you determine what and how to teach. Observe your pupils interact
with each other, and talk to them about their interests. By doing this, you
can begin to gather the information you need to build a preliminary
instructional plan. Here are some ideas that might help you learn more
about your pupils:

• Review any portfolios that contain work from previous years.
• Check for literacy and numeracy competency by having pupils take a
literacy and numeracy test.
• Ask them to write about a topic of their choice as an initial writing
sample.
• Have your pupils to work on an activity in small groups and observe
how they work together.
• Use any baseline data on literacy and numeracy to determine the
proficiency level of each pupil in both literacy and numeracy.
• Use proficiency level to identify areas of strengths and weaknesses in
literacy and numeracy.

16

• Devise a strategy for addressing areas of weaknesses identified in
both literacy and numeracy.

Getting to know your pupils go a long way so is allowing your pupils to
trust you and to develop a warm relationship between you as the teacher
and each of your pupils. Unfortunately teachers often give disproportionate
amount of their attention to misbehaviour, rather than to appropriate
behaviour. By acknowledging appropriate behaviour, pupils who deserve
the recognition and attention get its. At the same time recognising good
behaviour teaches pupils how to behave by providing them with
opportunities to witness good behaviour. It also minimizes the negative
effects that punishment can have and makes classroom more positive and
more conducive to learning. It is recommended that this strategy be used
frequently throughout the school day as a regular classroom management
tool.

Teachers need to be aware of what a conducive classroom environment is.
We are talking not only about the physical environment but also the
emotional environments that will play a role in the instructional setting.
After all, a teacher is only as good as the learning environment he or she
can create. How many times have you been part of a classroom where you
knew the instruction was brilliant, but the teacher just couldn’t engage the
pupils or create an interesting lesson? We have all been in that situation.
Creating a positive learning environment and being able to design effective
lesson plans is the foundation for effective pupil learning.

Teachers need to understand the importance of the interaction between
them and their pupils and the impact that their behavior and decisions
about instruction have on their pupils’ success. In simpler terms, the
classroom environment that a teacher creates can have a significant
impact on the achievement of his/her pupils. For a new teacher, this can
be difficult to conceptualize. Often new teachers tend to occupy themselves
with lesson planning, grading assignments, and worrying whether pupils
understand what they have been taught as well as pupils’ perceptions of
them that they often miss the bigger picture. But the more they gain
experience and become effective, the focus tend to shift to the more
important issues; the pupils and creating an environment in which they
could learn.

Teachers need to realize that the classroom is a dynamic and complex
entity with each pupil bringing in a lifetime of ideas and experiences in
and out of school. Despite the presence of variables beyond their control,
teachers need to commit themselves to establishing a harmonious
classroom community in which pupils can feel safe to participate freely,
sharing unique opinions and perspectives.


17

To create an environment conducive for learning, teachers may want to
consider the following as guidelines;
• creating and maintaining a learning community in which individual
differences and strengths are respected.
• analyzing the classroom environment and making decisions and
adjustments to enhance social relationships, pupil motivation and
engagement, and productive work.
• creating and maintaining a smoothly functioning learning
community in which pupils assume responsibility for themselves
and one another
• promoting dispositional thinking routines in the classroom.
• establishing clear standards of conduct for all pupils.
• organizing, allocating, and managing time, space, activities, and
attention to provide active and equitable engagement of all pupils in
productive tasks.

Like teachers, pupils also have their own expectations on their first day in
school. On the first day, pupils expect and want their teacher to be
confident, kind, and competent. Once this is established, they can move to
other things. What are the rules in the classroom? What will I be doing this
year? How will I be graded? Who is the teacher as a person? Will the
teacher treat me as a human being? Will the teacher respect me and
understand my culture, background, and needs?
Pupils need to feel safe both in the school and the classroom environment.
They will learn better if they feel welcome and important in the classroom.
It is up to the teacher to make sure that the emotional needs of their
pupils in the classroom are met. This means carefully considering the
details of the physical environment and its effects on the emotional culture
of the classroom.
Pupils tend to mirror their teacher’s behavior. Since this is so, it is
important for teachers to treat their pupils with the same type of respect
and courtesy that they would expect their pupils to show to them. Saying
“please” and “thank you,” calling pupils by name, choosing not to use a
sarcastic tone, etc., are all ways to show pupils how to respect each other
and the teacher. Courteous behavior may not be common in a pupil’s
home and this may increase the challenge of teaching courteous behavior.
This however makes the task that much more important and challenging.
Teachers need to remember that everything they do makes a statement
that affects the emotional environment of their classroom. Pupils take their
cues from their teachers. If teachers allow such behaviour as teasing,
disrespectful and unkind behavior between classmates, pupils would take
such behaviour as acceptable. Stopping such behavior immediately sends
the message that it will not be tolerated and once pupils realize that the
classroom is a safe place, their minds are free to learn what the teacher
teaches.
Putting in place procedures and routines for the classroom are key
components of good classroom management. The teacher needs to be clear
about how her classroom will be organized and what procedures and

18

routines are necessary. Classroom management is often associated with
classroom discipline or class control.

Procedures are the heart of an organized classroom. A procedure is what
the teacher wants done. A routine is what the pupils do automatically.
Procedures are the beginnings of routines in the classrooms. We all want
to have classrooms that run efficiently. Teachers who have well defined
and understood procedures rarely have any discipline problems. These
teachers’ classrooms seem to run on their own. In fact, they do. Pupils
know what to do and how to do it because the teacher has explicitly taught
each procedure. The procedure is practiced and practiced until it becomes
a routine. It becomes the way tasks are accomplished.
Before the first day of school, teachers should take time to determine the
procedures that organize the classroom environment. These procedures
can be as simple as entering the room or as complex as what their options
for work are when they have completed the main assignment. Teachers are
encouraged to plan these procedures in advance in explicit detail.
Classroom management and organization run more smoothly if pupils are
given the opportunity to learn the classroom procedures through direct
instruction rather than through trial and error.
The teachers need to take time to introduce and teach these procedures to
pupils. Make a list of your procedures and then sort them by importance.
Which ones do you have to teach in the first five minutes of the day, within
the first hour, within the first day, within the first week, or within the first
month? Sorting your procedures this way is important so that you don’t
overwhelm your pupils. They need to absorb the information and begin the
process of moving from procedure to routine.
Effective discipline is evident in classrooms that have set procedures.
When pupils are able to self-monitor their behaviours, they are able to
address the learning issues at any level. However they need to have a firm,
set plan for discipline. Although procedures are necessary for effective
discipline, there is a difference between a discipline plan and procedures.
While discipline is concerned with how pupils behave, procedures are
concerned with how things are done. Discipline has penalties and rewards
while procedures have no penalties or rewards.
Pupils need to know exactly what is expected. They must know what
proper behavior/action is and is not. This requires time and role-playing
during the first weeks of school. These role-playing experiences should be
specific and teach a certain procedure. Procedures take time to teach, but
you will regain the time during the year. You will not have to stop
instruction in order to handle procedural concerns. Once you are past the
first two weeks of school, your pupils will move from procedure to routine.
Gaining and maintaining pupil’s attention throughout a lesson or creating
a respectful environment would be more appropriate way teachers should
focus on in considering conducive classroom setting. Teachers may believe
that to be an effective teacher is to keep the class orderly and have
complete classroom control. While this may still be the case, it is far
important to be able to actively motivate and engage pupils, and to have

19

them understand the material, concept, or idea being presented in positive
and supportive learning environment.

Teachers’ disposition and attitude towards their pupils and to teaching are
critical factors in designing a well-organized, positive, supportive, and well-
managed classroom conducive to learning. Additionally, if teachers do not
have the respect of their pupils and if they cannot gain and maintain their
attention, it will not be possible teach the lesson effectively.

Respect comes from giving respect and providing an atmosphere of respect
for others. Are you prepared and organized? Pupils can easily tell if a
teacher is prepared or not. If teachers are not prepared, they are sending a
strong message that they do not have respect for the pupils. Teachers
should make themselves available for one-on-one discussion with their
pupils and should view themselves as a positive force in the classroom.
They should respect differences among pupils and promote fairness in all
activities in the classroom.

The design of effective classroom management strategies and incorporation
of them in daily planning are the best techniques for preventing disruption
and management problems. However an effective teacher does recognize
the fact that sometimes no matter what you do there will be a difficult
pupil or situation that needs to be addressed. Classroom management is
typically the most challenging aspect of teaching.

Besides the methods discussed earlier in “getting to know you” activities,
you may also be interested in using other ways to learn more about your
pupils. Creating a profile of every pupil in your class not only help you
know your pupils but also know about their background, what they like
what they do not like, etc. This allows you to learn about your pupil’s lives
outside of the classroom so that if learning problems arise, you are in a
position to help your pupils as much as possible.

You many consider preparing a simple questionnaire that asks your pupils
about their families. They include questions on aspects that might affect a
pupil’s learning and attendance in school, such as whether a pupil’s
parents are still living or married and if they live in the same household or
have migrated temporarily for work; who takes care of them if not the
parents; how many persons are in the household; what is their
relationship to the pupil; what are their education and occupational
backgrounds.

The information can be collected in several ways; by sending the
questionnaire home to be filled out by parents or guardians or interviewing
the pupils themselves. If a pupil has any learning difficulty you can
consult the information from the questionnaires to identify possible causes
and actions. Right from the beginning you are starting to develop a profile
of every pupil in your class which would ultimately become a very useful
database as well as a record of your pupils.

By introducing yourself by name to your pupils and not simply as their
“teacher”, you are showing them how much you want to know about them,
as well as how much you want them to know about you. While it is not
necessary to share very personal information with your pupils, including

20

information about yourself during the learning process can help
personalize the learning environment and make your pupils feel at home.
The process can begin on the first day when you are talking about what
you expect your pupils to learn. Being humorous and showing your pupils
that you can laugh with them helps in establishing a positive relationship
with your pupils.

Allowing your pupils to express themselves during the first two or three
weeks of school will encourage them to participate in class discussions.
Remember that the longer a pupil goes without speaking in class, the more
difficult it will be for him or her to contribute, and you will lose a valuable
opportunity to learn just what they have learned. You might want to have
pupils work initially in small groups during the first few weeks of school
because this may make it easier for shy students to later contribute in the
class setting.

Many pupils in your class are bound to be too shy or embarrassed, to ask
questions or make comments in front of their peers. Some teachers
actually do not like pupils to ask questions because they feel it threatens
their authority. Questions, however, are a valuable means of getting
feedback on what your pupils are learning, what they are having difficulty
with, and how you can make your teaching more meaningful and enjoyable
for you and your pupil. To encourage your pupils to ask questions or give
their views about what they are learning helps in making your pupils feel
part of the learning process and not bystanders.

Pupils may not want to ask or answer questions because they are either
shy or they fear of showing to others that they don’t understand the
concept that you are teaching. In explaining a difficult concept or lesson,
you might talk about the difficulties you had in learning it, and what
methods you used to help learn and remember it. Before class, after you
have finished preparing your lesson, ask yourself: “What might my pupils
find hard to follow in this lesson? What examples might make that more
understandable?” You might want to keep a diary of errors pupils are likely
to make as a reminder of what pupils would most likely find most difficult
to understand.

It is in your interest as a teacher to try and encourage your pupils to ask
questions or give their views about what they are learning. You may want
to use “prompts” or statements or questions that your pupils are expected
to respond to in terms of their experiences or what they have learned.
“Who did you talk to on your way to school this morning?” “What time did
you wake up this morning?” Prompts are meant to appeal to all your
pupils’ interest and motivate them enough to be willing to respond. A
prompt that appeals only to some of your pupils is likely to motivate them
but not all of your pupils.

Pupils may not want to answer questions because they fear showing others
that they don’t understand the concept that you are teaching. They have
not mastered it. So it is important that if you want your pupils to respond
that you ask a question you know they know the answer to otherwise if
they are not sure about the answer, they would not respond.



21

In general, the more approachable you are in terms of your manner and
genuine interest in your pupils, the more likely they will feel comfortable in
seeing you, in talking with you, and in listening to you in the classroom.
You also need to make sure that both you and your pupils are able to
function effectively in the classroom. You need to set certain rules so
pupils know the limits, as well as how to behave with others and respect
their rights.

Involve your pupils in developing classroom rules! You might take a
“rights-based” approach by starting with the principle that “you may do
what you want in the classroom, unless what you do interferes with the
rights of others, such as your classmates and your teacher.” Ask your
pupils to identify what behaviours are acceptable and what behaviours are
not acceptable because they violate the rights of others. Develop rules to
fulfill these rights as well as penalties for violating them. Remember that
penalties should be consistent with the nature of the misbehaviour and
based on positive discipline to help your pupils to learn good behaviour.
For instance, making a pupil stand in a corner facing the wall for breaking
a glass teaches the student nothing. Having the pupils apologize for his or
her action and clean up the mess teaches him or her responsibility.

Violating rules by some pupils in the classroom is a normal part of
learning no matter how hard you may try. It is a normal part of pupil’s
development and not a reflection on your teaching. When pupils
misbehave, a teacher may use corporal punishment as a way to control the
situation. This excuse is common among classrooms in which there are no
set rules or routines. The pupils do not know what is expected of them and
the consequences for misbehaving.

The teacher did not take the time to build a positive relationship with the
pupils so they would want to be good. This may be due to his or her
authoritative classroom management style, one that says, “I’m the teacher
and we’ll do things my way!” In trying to maintain control, the teacher may
also use corporal punishment to try and put fear into the hearts of the
other pupils so they won’t misbehave as well. Using the threat of physical
violence does not encourage pupils to learn from the teacher, only to fear
him or her. It also destroys the classroom’s psycho-social environment.

While corporal punishment is meant to control a pupil’s behaviour,
positive discipline is meant to develop a pupil’s behaviour, especially in
matters of conduct. Rather than corporal punishment, there are many
positive discipline techniques that can be used. Following is a list of
positive disciplinary actions that you can take to guide pupils whose
misbehaviour is demanding attention. Catch them being good; praise them
when they are not seeking attention and misbehaving. Ignore the
behaviour when possible, giving the pupil positive attention during
pleasant times.

Many times teachers run out of patience and use corporal punishment
when they are angry or frustrated. Yet, there are many positive ways to
deal with anger and frustration. Some teachers share their frustration with
their pupils in an attempt to help pupils understand what makes teachers
frustrated. Some teachers use other methods but all are aimed at getting
pupils to learn what not to do and why. They might do it again, and are

22

therefore expected to take responsibility for their actions and will have to
deal with the consequences.

Involving your pupils in managing the classroom also helps in developing
the right environment. Appointing a class captain for a week with clear
responsibilities would help send out the message to your pupils that it is
their classroom too and not yours alone. Alternatively you may appoint a
class assistant on a daily basis providing clear responsibilities. Pupils
communicate better with each other than with their teacher so getting
pupils involve in how you manage the classroom would help ease any
tension between you as the teacher and your pupils.

Decorating the room with pupils’ work will also help add to the
attractiveness of the classroom and make it more welcoming. It is
important to remember that what makes you feel comfortable may not be
the same as what makes your pupils feel comfortable. At the beginning of
the year, organize your classroom, and then ask your pupils if they are
comfortable with it. Better yet, divide them into groups and ask each group
to look around the room and its contents, and then to draw a picture of
how they would like the room to be organized. Use ideas from their
drawings to design your pupils’ “personal” classroom. Try the arrangement
for one or two weeks, and then ask your pupils if they are comfortable with
it. Change the classroom arrangement if they feel a new one would be more
comfortable and change it whenever you sense that your pupils are
becoming bored with sitting in the classroom.

There will be times when you are making informal observations that provide clues
to the progress being made by the pupils. These observations help to provide a

picture of the progress of the pupil, and may help you to identify a particular
strength or weakness. If you are confident of the pupil’s name you will be able to
record your observation on a personal record card designed for that purpose. Much

better than the embarrassment of having to ask the pupil what their name is.























23


2.4 How familiar are you with



the course document?


In most cases the subject that you are teaching will be represented inside
the curriculum by a course document. This may be called a syllabus, or
perhaps a prescription in some countries or even a curriculum document.
Whatever it is called it has certain components that you need to be familiar
with. But in principle, the course document tells you all about the
important things that one needs to know about a course.

Invariably the document will describe the overall aim(s) of the course
which are broad statements of its purpose or intent. They encompass the
purpose and philosophy of the course, specifying its overall direction and
content. They let pupils know what they expect to be taught over a study
period and what they may learn by taking the course. Course aims are
typically identified in relation to the broad programme aims as well as their
relationship to the aims of other courses within the programme. To write
this component of the course document one needs to understand the role
the course play in the overall curriculum.

Also expected in the course document are the content areas of the subject
to be taught, and will list the specific objectives associated with each of the
content areas. The content will most probably be a combination of
knowledge accumulation and skill development.

The specific objectives describe the packages of content in such a way that
they tell the teacher, and can also tell the pupil, what has to be achieved
or more specifically what pupils are expected to be able to do. They are
statements about what pupils are expected to be able to do, understand or
to have learned by taking the course. They use concrete terms to specify
and define the broad aims. They often refer to stages a learner must
progress through in order to achieve the aims of the course.

Course objectives need to be written in terms of pupil achievement and be
related to the qualities or skills that each course significantly develops.
They are therefore directly related to assessment tasks where the purpose
of the assessment is to assess how well pupils have achieved the objectives
of the course. Course objectives should cover knowledge (what new
understandings, definitions or approaches pupils are expected to gain),
skills, (what pupils will be able to do) and attitudes (how pupils’ beliefs or
values will be shaped

It is therefore essential that the current course document is in your
possession and that you are familiar with the overall course aims
Objectives content and what pupils are expected to achieve before you
attempt to teach the course. Failing to do so would make it difficult for you
to determine what knowledge and skills you should focus on in your
teaching. Further your pupils would find it difficult to know what level of
achievement is expected of them.


24

In many situations, the course document may provide a list of
recommended text(s). Often teachers, especially those who are not familiar
with the content, would use the text as the holy grail in their teaching. It is
important for teachers to understand that these textbooks are resources to
help them in their preparations, they are not meant to guide or worst still,
to dictate what they teach and how they teach. Teaching the subject from
a textbook without knowing the objectives of the course will not guarantee
that the pupils will achieve the intended learning outcomes.

Textbooks often provide series of exercises that pupils are expected to work
through both in class and at home. Such exercises are often organized
haphazardly and not in a developmental manner so there is no assurance
that completing the exercises would guarantee that the pupil has achieved
all of the learning outcomes. Teachers need to understand what the
learning outcome expects and carefully select what pupils are ask to do in
a textbook so that they provide useful evidence for the teacher to use.
Otherwise they are in danger of allowing the textbooks to dictate what they
teach and worse still dictating what and how pupil’s learn.

If the course document is well constructed, the material to be taught will
be clear, and the objectives will be specific enough to allow learning
outcomes to be identified. This would allow you to focus on the learning
outcomes in your teaching and for pupils to be aware of what they are
expected to achieve. It also allows you to choose how you use the content
of any recommended text as a supporting resource material but you
dictate what you teach and how you teach so as to guarantee the
achievement of the learning outcomes by pupils at the end.

Often in the curriculum document the objectives are compound and vague
thus making it difficult for the teacher to identify what is it that pupils are
expected to achieve. This creates problem in assessing pupils’ achievement
as it is not clear what exactly pupils are expected to be able to do if the
objectives are not clear. In such instances the objectives need to be
“unpacked” to a level of specificity where the teacher is clear of what pupils
are expected to be able to do with what they have learned, that is, the
learning outcomes.

An objective reaches the required level of specificity when it is expressed in
observable and measurable pupil behaviour that is pupil learning
outcomes. Pupil learning outcomes are defined in terms of the knowledge,
skills and abilities that pupils have attained as a result of their
involvement in a particular set of educational experiences or course of
study. They are statements that specify what you want your pupils to
know and be able to do at the end of the course. They are usually
expressed as knowledge, skills or attitudes.

Learning outcomes need to be specific enough to be meaningful for
instructional and assessment practices. They must also be up-to-date and
accurately reflect the shared understandings of those teaching the course
and that the behaviour we expect pupils to show as evidence of what they
have achieved in relation to the learning outcomes must be observable and
measurable.


25

Besides helping teachers to tell pupils precisely what is expected of them,
learning outcomes also;
• help pupils learn more effectively and are able to know where they
stand relative to what they are expected to do.
• make it clear what pupils can hope to gain from following a
particular course study.
• help teachers to design and plan their teaching more effectively.
• help teachers select the appropriate teaching strategy that would
enhance the chance of pupils achieving what they are expected to
achieve. It obviously makes sense to match the intended learning
outcome to the teaching strategy.
• help teachers with informing their pupils what a particular activity is
designed to achieve.
• assist in designing tasks that would be used to assess the level
achieved by pupils in relation to what is expected.
• ensure that appropriate assessment strategies are employed.
Perhaps at this point it is necessary to make a distinction between
objectives and learning outcomes to avoid any misconception. Table S2.i
provides an attempt to distinguish between the two concepts. Learning
outcomes build upon, but are different from, course objectives and goals
because they represent a new perspective. The differences between an
objective and a learning outcome are important especially in trying to
assess pupils’ achievement.
Objectives
Outcomes
represent valuable skills, tools, or
represent overarching products of
content (nuts and bolts) that enable the course.
a pupil to engage a particular
subject.
focus on content and skills
express higher level thinking skills
important within the course; what
that integrate the content and
the teacher will teach. Often termed
activities and can be observed as a
the input in the course.
behaviour, skill, or discrete
useable knowledge upon
completing the class.
can often be numerous, specific, and is an end product that can be
detailed. Assessing and reporting on displayed or observed and
each objective for each pupil may be measured against criteria.
impossible.
Figure 2.4.1
Consider the following example of an objective,
“By the end of Year 6 pupils should be able to make and play a musical
instrument”.
While this objective may look straight forward on first glance, it is a
compound objective in several respects. First we need to be clear on what
musical instrument we want as it could mean any musical instrument.
Then there is the part on being able to play the instrument. Does it refer to
26

being able to play a few notes, a scale, a song or any song? To be able to
identify the learning outcome the objective needs to be unpacked. The
unpacked objective might give you the following specific learning
outcomes;

- “the pupil is able to make a simple flute”
- “the pupil is able to play a scale on a simple flute”

These learning outcomes are extremely important, as they provide you and
your pupils with the precise goal that is to be achieved when learning has
been successful. Examples are printed in italics throughout this book.

Before you start to teach a particular portion of your course, the specific
learning outcomes need to be available. They need to be available not only
for you to use in your planning and in your teaching but they also need to
be available for your pupils to use in monitoring and assessing their own
learning. If the learning outcomes for each objective are not clearly stated
in the course document, then someone has to unpack the objectives so
that the learning outcomes are available. This is a task for you as the
teacher, but if you are not in a position to unpack, then it could well be a
task for the curriculum developers. However, part of this module would
focus on how to unpack course objectives to ensure that the learning
outcomes are clearly stated.

However, consider the following when trying to identify learning outcomes;

• think of what you expect your pupils to be able to do or to know
before you start teaching.
• now think of your pupils after your class, and decide what they
should now be able to do as a result of your teaching.
• always try to use action verbs in trying to state your intended
outcome.
• try writing them down and then ask some of your pupils whether
they know what was expected of them.

A list of these action verbs are given in the next section 2.5.

Giving pupils the ‘specific learning outcome statements’ is one way of
ensuring they know in advance what they are aiming for in their learning.

Imagine the routine of shopping. If you go to the shop armed with a list of
‘objectives’ you are more likely to come away with what was important,
than if you simply look around the shop and pick up what ever takes your
fancy.

If the course document does not go beyond providing specific objectives,
then it is profitable to involve the pupils in translating the objectives into
learning outcomes. The discussion that surrounds this exercise is valuable
as it makes pupils aware of the learning outcomes as well as giving them a
feeling of being part of the whole process.

Involving pupils has the potential of transforming pupils from passive into
active learners. The result of this change is that there is an added
dimension to their involvement in learning; a dimension that suggests “I
now know what I am going to learn”.

27


2.5 Objectives and pupil learning

outcomes

The course document is the source of all the objectives in which the
content and skills are described. It is important that you recognize and
understand the level of specificity found in an objective as this would allow
you to determine whether the objective needs unpacking or not. If the
objective is vague and unclear it needs to be unpacked in order to identify
the specific learning outcomes. If on the other hand they are specific
enough for you to be able to observe pupils’ behaviour and measure such
behaviour, then there is no need for unpacking.

Consider each of the situations illustrated below;

1.
If I say;
“Look at a person”

2.
If I say;
“Look at a woman”
specificity is
increasing
3.
If I say;
“Look at Mary”
Figure 2.5.1
As you move from number 1 to number 3 the command becomes more
specific. The first situation tells you to look at “a person” which could be
anybody you want. The second situation is a bit more specific as it tells
you not to look at anybody as in situation 1 but to look at a woman. The
third situation tells you to look at a particular woman named Mary.

The level of specificity can lie anywhere from “most general” as in situation
1 to “most specific” as in situation 3. The various scenarios can be easily
demonstrated in the following examples.

1. Least specific objective


“Pupils should be able to appreciate the power of mathematics in
solving
problems.”

This objective is very general because there are many features of
mathematics used in the solving of problems, and pupils may meet some
of these features and not others. There is no attempt to explain what
problems might be solved, nor the level of mathematics that must be used
to do the solving. Furthermore, the word, “appreciate”, calls on a skill that
is impossible to measure. In fact, is it a skill at all?

- I appreciate you coming to see me
- When my teacher helps me I appreciate it
- I appreciate that Helen plays the guitar better than Fred

2. More specific

“Pupils should be able to understand and use the four operations and
correct
order
of
operations
with
whole numbers in both calculations
and everyday problems”.

28

This objective is still very broad as it covers many possible skills. But the
introduction of the word “use” means that the implied skills can be
measured, though the use of the word “understand” provides many
different questions that would be needed to check all the learning
outcomes that are implied.

3. Yet more specific

“Pupils should be able to multiply any two 2-digit whole numbers”

This objective now stands at the level of a specific learning outcome, and a
simple question can soon establish if the objective has been achieved or
not.

For example;
Multiply 32 by 29

An answer of 928 indicates that the pupil has almost certainly achieved
this learning outcome, as the same process would be used for any other
pair of 2-digit numbers.

4. Too specific

“Pupils should be able to multiply 32 by 29”

This objective is too specific, as it means that many (in fact more than 400)
other objectives would be needed simply to cover the learning outcomes for
all 2-digit numbers multiplied together. When objectives become too
specific as in this situation, they illustrate a particular activity in a broader
objective and focus on a particular situation. In such case, they illustrate a
particular level of achievement in a broader learning outcome.

The specific objective phrased as;

“Pupils should be able to multiply any two 2-digit whole numbers”

becomes a class-centred specific learning outcome if the phrasing is
changed to

“The pupils are able to multiply any two 2-digit whole numbers”,

and becomes a pupil-centred specific learning outcome if the phrasing
is changed to

“John is able to multiply any two 2-digit whole numbers”.

Class-centred learning outcomes are important in that they allow you to
have access to information that would indicate the effectiveness of your
teaching. How has the class as a group performed? To what extend has the
class achieved each of the learning outcomes?

While class-centred learning outcomes are important, it is the pupil-
centred learning outcome that becomes part of a pupil record of
achievement. Pupil-centred learning outcomes enable you to monitor each
pupil’s progress and also to determine what are the specific areas of
weaknesses or strengths of each pupil.

More will be said about learning outcomes in later chapters.

29


You will notice from your course document that all the specific objectives
contain an action verb that provides the teacher and the pupil with
guidance for determining the depth to which the subject of the objective is
to be dealt with by the teacher in his/her teaching or by the pupil in
his/her learning. In learning outcomes these action verbs must be
observable and measurable to allow you to assess what your pupils are
able to do.

Using such verbs makes it possible to tie objectives into assessable
outcomes, which can be valuable. The following tables contain a selection
of indicator verbs that usually appear in a Mathematics curriculum (2.5.2)
and English Language (2.5.3) curriculum.

manipulate order
match
count
add divide
group
list
use
measure
identify arrange
compare estimate sort
find
construct solve apply convert
create multiply define relate

Figure 2.5.2


Order
listen identify discuss invent



recite sing compose predict


recognize order ask justify



retell summarize apply evaluate



invent write contrast select


complete draft record name


Figure 2.5.3

Most text-books on the subject will tell you that objectives should be
SMART, that is,

Specific
-
State clearly what the pupil should know or able




to do and at what level
Measurable -
Able to measure the level of pupils’ achievement.
Attainable -
Able to conceive what pupils are expected to




achieve after taking the class or course.
Realistic
-
Same as attainability but also focus on




appropriateness to the overall course aim.
Time
-
Able to be achieved within the allowed timeframe.


30

2.6 From objectives to learning
outcomes
An introduction to objectives as they appear in the course document has
been made in 2.4. The full value to you and to the pupil only emerges
when the objective is reduced to its most fundamental forms, the specific
learning outcomes. The process of reducing the objectives to specific
learning outcomes so they can be observed and measured has been
described as “unpacking” the objective.
While traditional approach to teaching have been content with objectives
as providing sufficient guides for teachers in their teaching, it makes the
assessment process a nightmare as it is not clear from many objectives
what is it that needs to be assessed. The question one has to ask is why
has there been a shift in focus in the teaching and learning from objectives
to learning outcomes.
The learning outcomes approach reflects a conceptual shift towards
making learning more meaningful and effective. For a variety of
understandable reasons many of our pupils approach education as an
“alienated intellectual activity”, rather than something that is good for
them and that it enhances their lives.
Making education more meaningful for these pupils requires that they
acquire a sense of the educational activities as enabling them to lead a
richer and more empowered life rather than a task done primarily to
satisfy the demands of others. By explicitly building educational
experiences based on what pupils should be able to do with their
knowledge, the learning outcomes approach helps the educational
community see where the educational programme fits into the community.
From this perspective, it is important to fully grasp the importance of the
link between course objectives and pupil learning outcomes.
All course objectives have a verb describing an action, and a noun upon
which the action is made. Within the context of teaching and learning, the
action implied by the verb must be capable of being observed or measured.
This implies that if the objective is phrased in a way that is difficult for the
teacher to observe and measure what pupils are expected to be able to do,
then it makes the teacher’s task much more challenging. It also makes it
difficult for pupils to focus on what is it they are expected to learn and at
what level.
VERB
NOUN
Figure 2.6.1
31

For example;

ADD

NUMBERS

READ

NEWSPAPERS

USE

PUNCTUATION

MEMORISE

SYMBOLS
Figure 2.6.2
While the above examples may look simple very few objectives are truly
simple since either the verb implies complexity, or the noun needs to have
a qualifier attached.
VERB
NOUN
QUALIFIER
Figure 2.6.3
For example;
ADD
NUMBERS
2-DIGIT
MEMORISE
SYMBOLS
40 ELEMENTS
USE
PUNCTUATION
. , ?
Figure 2.6.4
An objective that says, “pupils should be able to add numbers” appears
simple because it only has the verb “add”, and the noun “numbers”. But it
is not simple. This is because the objective can be interpreted as expecting
any two numbers to be added together.
So for example a pupil might be expected to add,
2 + 2,
but may also be expected to add, 2 + 10 4
or
3¼ + 5⅜
Even though the verb “add” is simple, the noun “numbers” can be
represented in a huge number of ways, and this adds to the complexity.
This complexity hides a number of specific learning outcomes, and for the
objective to be useful, these specific learning outcomes need to be brought
out or “unpacked”. This will require adding a qualifier to the objective. The
function of the qualifier is to place limits on the scope of the
objective or to set the boundary within which the action (illustrated
by the verb) should be taken.
In this particular example, the unpacking should establish and list the
simplest learning outcomes through to the most difficult learning
outcomes required by the course in which the objective appears.
Unpacking the objective, “pupils should be able to add numbers”, will
involve adding appropriate qualifiers.
Unpacking the objective could produce the following range of specific
learning outcomes. These might represent the range required for a primary
school mathematics course running from Grade 1 to Grade 6.
32

-
add single-digit numbers with no regrouping
-
add single-digit numbers with regrouping
-
add two-digit numbers with no regrouping
-
add two-digit numbers with regrouping
-
-
-

-
add decimal numbers to two places
-
-
-

-
add simple fractions

This process provides the specificity that was described in 2.3.

Let us now turn our attention to the action verbs that are used in
objectives. The verbs “add”, “memorize” and “use”, require the simplest
level of action on the part of the pupil, and any objective containing them
would only be regarded as complicated if a qualifier for the noun is
required.

Figure 2.6.5, contains a range of verbs typically appearing in objectives.

Those in the row labeled “simplest”, are part of objectives that do not
require unpacking unless the noun needs a qualifier.

Those in the rows labeled “complex” and “most complex” almost certainly
require the objectives, of which they are a part, to be unpacked in order to
identify the specific learning outcomes being targeted.




Add
Find
Remember
Use


List
Know*
Choose Memorize
Simplest


Draw
Recall
Read
Make

* Pupils will need to have an opportunity to demonstrate that
they ‘know’



Calculate Design
Discuss Distinguish


Compare Measure Identify Interpret
Complex


Select
Order
Understand
Recognize

Respond Estimate Demonstrate



Contrast Predict Isolate
Apply


Summarize Assemble Formulate Perform
Most

complex
Analyze Construct
Evaluate Design


Adjust
Develop
Transform
Synthesize






Figure 2.6.5


33

Usually the increasing complexity of the verb level goes hand in hand with
increasing cognitive demands on pupils. For this reason the “simplest”
verb levels are found in the majority of objectives at the earlier years of
schooling. However it is possible, with skillful planning, to devise activities
that require “complex” and even “most complex” actions that can be
attempted by young children.
While one would not expect the “most complex” verb levels to appear very
often in the course documents covering the primary school years, they do
appear. As we have seen, it is the noun qualifier that aids in the
unpacking of objectives that have a verb from the “simplest” level.
But for “complex” and “most complex” level verbs, the unpacking also
relates to the components that cause the action required by the verb to be
complex. For example, consider the “complex” level verb COMPARE.
Figure 2.6.6 isolates components within the COMPARE objective, and each
of these components can form the basis for a specific learning outcome
expected of pupils.
Identify the things
Display
Display knowledge
to be compared
abou
o t
u the things to
be
b
e com
o pa
p r
a ed
e
Develop
p a report
in
in language
e that
highlights
highlights the
COMPARE
COMPARE
Select relevant
components to use
comparis
p
on
in the comparison
De
D s
e cr
c ibe
b
e the
e fea
e t
a ur
u es
e
Justify
Justify the points being
pe
p r
e tinent to the com
o parison
o
us
u e
s d
d in the compa
p rison
Figure 2.6.6
The text statements around the action verb form the basis for the specific
learning objectives. Each can be observed or measured. And, each can be
directed so that it is a pupil-centred specific learning outcome. These are
the statements that, when answered, provide you and your pupils with a
measure of the level of achievement of pupils. As an example, take the
course objective;
“Pupils will be able to compare the actions and behaviours of two characters
in a story”.
In this course objective, the noun is already qualified, but the verb, being
complex, requires the objective to be unpacked in order to reveal the
specific learning outcomes. These can be phrased as follows;
“Identifies aspects of actions and behaviours to be compared”
“Displays knowledge (knows) of the characters whose actions and
behaviours are to be compared”
“Selects relevant actions and behaviours for comparison”
“Justifies including the various points for the comparison”
34

“Describes pertinent aspects of the actions and behaviours of the two
characters”
“Develops a report that highlights the comparison (such as in x… whereas in

y…)”

Notice that the initial action verb of COMPARE has been broken down into
a new set of action words, namely;

Identify Display Select Justify Describe Develop

The course objective has now been broken down into five manageable
specific learning outcomes, each of which can be observed or measured.

As was mentioned in 2.5, involving pupils in the unpacking of objectives is
one way of cementing interest in the process of learning. As you move on
from one topic to another in your teaching, you and the pupils will be
confronted with a new set of course objectives. This provides you with an
opportunity to involve the pupils in the unpacking process.

You may be teaching a General Studies course to Year 4 and have reached
the point where you are to teach a topic on;

“wood and gas as fuels”.

A lesson spent on framing questions that lead towards specific learning
outcomes, might produce something like this.

Questions Learning
Outcomes
What is a fuel?
“Know the characteristics of a fuel”
What do fuels need to work?
“Can list the requirements for a fuel”
Why is wood a fuel?
“Explain why wood is a fuel”
“Describe the condition of the wood”
What is gas?
“Know the gas is methane “
“Know where gas comes from”

Why is gas a fuel?
“Explain why gas is a fuel”
Which is best wood or gas?
“List the advantages and disadvantages of
wood and gas fuels”
What other fuels are there?
“Name three other fuels”
What about pollution?
“Name products of combustion”
“Relate pollution to certain products”

How can we be safe with our “Describe measures about safe use of fuels”
fuels?
“Describe measures for storing fuels safely”
Figure 2.6.7

Even if you have ready-made specific learning outcomes, the exercise of
involving pupils in “unpacking” them is worthwhile.

The model shown in Figure 2.6.7, is produced by the class:

• “brainstorming” ideas
• choosing ideas for inclusion
• framing questions that represent the ideas
• developing learning outcomes based upon the questions

The combined actions of unpacking and discussing, add to the
platform of preparing the pupils for learning.



35


2.7 Unpacking objectives

The objectives distributed throughout the course document display a
whole range of action verbs. In the same way that the action verb
‘compare’ was exploded in the last section, similar treatment is given to a
range of action verbs.

The phrases at the end of the tails coming away from the oval holding the
action verb should be read clockwise starting at between 10 and 12
o’clock. The order in which each one is read coincides with the order in
which a pupil would demonstrate mastery or competency in the course
objective. The process of identifying the complete list of developmental, yet
observable and measurable phrases that represents the action verb in the
objective is what is referred to as unpacking the objective. The result of the
unpacking is a list of specific observable and measurable statements
(learning outcomes) which indicate all that a pupil is required to be able to
do to fully satisfy the objective.

Any scheme attached to an activity designed to judge pupil success in
achieving the objective would reflect both the order and the content of
specific learning outcomes developed from the phrases.


1. Understands current

position




PREDICT
2. Lists influencing

factors



4. Makes the

prediction
3. Clarifies influence of

each factor



1. Demonstrates

understanding of the

text





SUMMARISE
2. Isolates salient

points



4. Connects
3. Orders points

points smoothly
accurately



36

1. Selects viable approach
CALCULATE
2. Orders steps
coherently
4. Presents solution in
appropriate form
3. Displays accuracy
in the method
1. Considers the appropriate
Set of objects or ideas
SELECT
2. Chooses correct/
appropriate objects or
ideas
1. Displays understanding
of the question
2. Provides
comprehensive
RESPOND
answer
2. Chooses ideas for
1. Considers
inclusion
important principles
5. Makes changes
DESIGN
as necessary
3. Drafts a
solution
4. Tests the
solution
37

1. Considers current
2. Identifies any
arrangement
need for change
ADJUST
3. Effects the
change
1. Reviews the
list
2. Establishes a
basis for order
ORDER
3. Effects the
order
1. Uses
appropriate
knowledge
2. Presents
UNDERSTANDS
accurate
product
1. Chooses appropriate
2. Checks suitability of
type of measuring
scale
device
MEASURE
5. Indicates
uncertainty
3. Uses measuring
device
4. Presents
measurement
1. Considers
appropriate
DISTINGUISH
2. Lists points of
difference
3. Concludes on
balance of
difference
38

1. Chooses quantities
pertaining to the
2. Simplifies the
estimate
size of the
quantities
ESTIMATE
3. Effects the
4. Presents the
estimate
estimate in most
appropriate form
1. Chooses relevant
2. Presents points in
points on the
accurate way
subject
DISCUSS
3. Presents points in
best order
1. Considers
range of sets
2. Isolates
appropriate set
IDENTIFY
or
RECOGNISE
3. Chooses correct item
1. Draws on appropriate
knowledge or motor
skill
2. Presents the
knowledge or skill
effectively
DEMONSTRATE
3. Convinces the observer
with accurate points or
execution
39

1. Judgement made on
balance of evidence
from the comparison
CONTRAST
1. Gather appropriate
ideas or objects
2. Orders ideas or
objects coherently
ASSEMBLE
1. Considers
source
2. Validates inclusion
or exclusion of
ISOLATE
material
3. Presents isolated
item or material
1. Gathers together
relevant ideas
2. Justifies inclusion of
the ideas
FORMULATE
3. Presents the
ideas coherently
1. Uses the appropriate
selections to respond
successfully to the task
APPLY
SELECT
40

1. Breaks item into
distinct groups
2. Considers each
group in turn
ANALYSE
3. Presents accurate
summary of findings
1. Presents ideas or
object as a
coherent whole
ASSEMBLE
1. Clarifies what is
2. Presents a step by step
to be developed
plan for the development
DEVELOP
4. Presents the
finished product
3. Executes the
plan
1. Considers
source material
2. Lists the contained
features
EVALUATE
4. Compiles an overview of
3. Considers each feature
the material value
and determines its value
41

1. Identifies what
2. Lists factors to be
is to be designed
considered in the design
DESIGN
3. Shows evidence of
drafting phases in the
4. Presents a final
design
design
1. Considers current
form of the material
2. Chooses the elements to
be transformed
TRANSFORM
3. Executes the
transformation
2.
1. Entertains through
presence and quality
of performance
PERFORM
Unpacking an objective is something that all teachers need to be able to do
if they are to be in a position to be able to help their pupils. A teacher
should be in a position to unpack an objective to identify the range of
learning outcomes anticipated in each objective. These ooutcomes are
usually expressed as knowledge skills or attitudes and can refer to
knowledge practical skills critical thinking skills areas of professional
development etc. that pupils are expected to develop or learn.
A well-defined learning outcome specifies actions by pupils that are
observable, measurable, and must be done by the pupils themselves. The
crucial factor in determining if your learning outcome is well-defined is
whether or not the action taken by the pupils can be assessed.
There are several key issues that you as a teacher should consider prior to
developing your pupil learning outcome statements:
42

• Keep in mind the knowledge and skills that are central to the course
and/or discipline.
• Do not focus on small details, but rather on general knowledge
and/or skills you expect your pupils to acquire through your course.
• Do not merely describe activities or lessons from the course, but
rather articulate the learning that will result from the course.
• Make sure your statement is centered not on what you are going to
teach them, but rather on what the pupil will do. For example, “upon
completion of this course pupils will be able to identify all the parts
of a plant” as opposed to “one objective of this course are to teach
about the parts of a plant.”

A learning outcome statement needs to specify who is to perform (pupil),
what action they are to take, and some results that must come from their
action. Since the outcome must be measurable, the action specified must
be an action verb. In other words, it should specify overt behavior that can
be observed and measured.

Some examples include:

Create
Discuss
Analyze
Explain
Demonstrate Critique

You should, however, avoid certain action verbs (like know, become aware
of, appreciate, learn, understand, become familiar with), because they are
unclear, subject to differing interpretations in terms of what action they
are specifying. In addition, these verbs call for “covert” behavior which
cannot be observed or measured.

Unclear learning outcome statements:

• The pupils will understand democracies.
• The pupils will appreciate art from other cultures.
• The pupils will learn about the law of relativity.

These statements are not well-defined learning outcomes since they are not
measurable.

However, these statements can be modified to become well-defined learning
outcomes as follows:

• The pupils are able to describe the major theories of democracy.
• The pupils are able to identify the characteristics of art from other
cultures.
• The pupils are able to explain the major tenets of the law of
relativity.

Writing learning outcomes that focus on higher-order skills may be a
challenge. Consider incorporating words that reflect critical or higher-order
thinking into your learning outcome statements. The work of Benjamin
Bloom, (Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, 1984) who developed a
taxonomy that outlines the types of thinking skills people use in the
learning process, may be a useful guide.

Bloom believes that learners use different levels of thinking skills to
process different types of information and situations. The levels range from

43

the most basic cognitive skills, such as memorization, to more complex
skills such as creating new ways to apply the information (e.g., critical
thinking skills or higher-order thinking skills).

Determining desired learning outcomes provides you as the teacher
direction in terms of allowing you to:

• identify specifically what you want your pupils to learn in the
course.
• more efficiently design content, instruction, and evaluation for the
course.
• convey to pupils as well as to your colleagues what you are covering
in your course and the priority areas you intend to cover.
• Allow you to manage your own expectations concerning what your
pupils and course can actually accomplish.

Learning outcome statements take the course learning goals and focus on
how pupil can demonstrate that the goals are being met. In other words,
learning outcomes answer the question of, “how can pupils demonstrate
they have acquired the needed/stated knowledge, skills, and/or values.”
Learning outcomes then are clear, concise statements that describe how
pupils can demonstrate their mastery of the course’s learning goals.
Toohey (1999) argues that learning outcomes are valuable because:
• they clarify educational purpose and can help teachers design all
other aspects of their program. Learning outcomes also provide a
guide for teachers to appropriate learning and assessment activities.
• they express educational purpose to pupils, so that they know what
the course offers them and what is expected of them. In other words,
learning outcomes help pupils to focus on what's important in the
course.
• they help teachers reconceptualise the educational purpose from the
pupils' point of view, in terms of what the pupil can be expected to
know or do as a result of completing the course.
However there is a tendency for teachers to formulate learning outcomes
for relatively trivial goals, such as being able to list components, laws, or
principles. These are not the real goals of learning. We learn laws and
principles so that we can understand, investigate, and predict certain
situations. Memorizing laws and principles is a step on the way to being
able to interpret, predict, or act more effectively in a given situation.
Ramsden (1992) suggests that we try to describe concepts that pupils need
to understand as well as relations between those concepts, rather than
describing facts or procedures. If learning outcomes concentrate largely on
procedures and facts, pupils will inevitably receive the message that higher
order outcomes are less important than an ability to categorize and
reproduce disconnected pieces of knowledge.
In developing learning outcomes care should be taken especially when
using words such as "understand" or "know" if you cannot be sure that

44

pupils will understand what it means to know or understand in a given
context. For example, "understand exchange rates and trade" presumably
implies an understanding of key concepts and their application to real
situations, so we might specify this learning outcome as follows;
• "able to explain the meaning and function of flexible and fixed
exchange rates in relation to the concept of equilibrium"
• "able to explain the significance of a current account deficit".
Because different disciplines have different understandings of common
academic terms, for example; "critical thinking", "analysis",
"communication skills", it is important to be clear about what
characterizes, for example, "critical thinking" in your discipline.
Toohey (1999) suggests that the best way to be clear with pupils about
how they must achieve learning outcomes in a subject is by setting out the
assessment tasks and the criteria by which evidence of pupils’ work will be
assessed.
Learning outcomes should reflect the pupil's increasing competence and
ability to deal with increasingly complex situations. They should be few
and significant enough to be remembered and meaningful rather than a
long list of trivial learning outcomes.









45



2.8 Skill
levels


Having gone through the unpacking process, and identifying the specific
learning outcomes, it is important to have an understanding of the level of
demand expected in each learning outcome. The indicator verb helps in
identifying not only the skills but also the levels expected by each. As
learning outcomes form the foundation upon which the assessment is
constructed, one needs to identify the levels expected in each outcome
before considering how to assessment should be carried out. The levels of
the learning outcomes are typically linked to domains. The common
domains of learning include cognitive, affective and psychomotor.

Benjamin Bloom is credited with identifying the Taxonomy of the Cognitive
Domain which contains six levels that increases in complex. The major
part of the course content laid out in a course document is made up of
course objectives which are linked to the cognitive skills. All the action
verbs which start the objectives provide a guide to the level of thinking
required by the objective.

Figure S8.i provides a useful breakdown of the cognitive levels that are
generally accepted, based on Bloom’s Taxonomy. Each cognitive level is
briefly described in order to convey the basic requirements implied by the
verb with sample indicator verbs and learning outcomes provided for each.
Cognitive (Knowledge) Domain
Level
Key Question(s)
Expectations
Action
Outcome Example
Verbs

What do I expect Recall specific
Recite, List By the end of the

pupils to know?
facts or general
chemistry program,
concepts
Knowledge
pupils will be able

to list all of the
elements on the
Periodic Table.


Can learners
The lowest level
Translate,
By the end of the

interpret what
of
interpret,
French program,
they know?
understanding,

predict,
pupils will be able
without
generalize, to translate a
Comprehension Can they
necessarily
identify
paragraph of text
extrapolate from relating to other examples
from English to
what they know? material, or
French.
seeing a wider

implication


Can pupils see
Using
Apply,
By the end of the

the relevance of
knowledge and
rewrite
BIS program,
an idea to a new understanding
Application
pupils will be able
situation?
in concrete
to apply basic Web
situations.
development skills



46


Can pupils
Breaking down
Analyze,
By the end of the

analyze elements a
dissect,
special education
of the subject
communication

resolve,
program, pupils
field?
into its
solve,
will be able to

constituent
diagnose,
diagnose learning

Can pupils
parts. Seeing
investigate disabilities in K-12

analyze
the relationship
settings.
Analysis
relationships in
between ideas,
the field?
and the
organization of
Can pupils
the
analyze
communication
organizational
is understood.
principles?

Can pupils
Putting together Create,
By the end of the

produce a
elements to
synthesize, art program, pupils
unique
form a whole;

write
will be able to
communication
arranging
create at least 12

in this field?
elements into a
original works in

structure that
their medium.
Synthesis
Can pupils
was not there
develop a plan or before.
a proposed set of
operations?
Can pupils
derive a set of
abstract
relationships?

Can pupils make Making
Evaluate,
By the end of the

judgments based judgments
judge,
music education
on internal
about the value

rate,
program, pupils
evidence?
of materials and appraise
will be able to

methods for a
judge student
Evaluation
Can pupils make given purpose.
performances.
judgments based Often the
on external
judgments are
evidence?
made against a
set of criteria.
Figure 2.8.1
(Gronlund, N.E. (2000). How to Write and Use Instructional Objectives. Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.)

In general, as you move from “Knowledge” through to “Evaluation” the
cognitive expectation on pupils rises. So that at a given age level, generally
speaking objectives starting with “know …..”, are easier to achieve than
objectives starting with “apply……”, and in turn are easier to achieve than
objectives starting with “evaluate….”

It is important that when the cognitive demands are being applied, the
level of development of the pupil places the demand in context; and this
usually relates to the age of the pupils. To expect a 10 year old pupil to
understand the structure of a chlorophyll molecule may be more
unrealistic than expecting the same pupil to apply ideas to work out the
area of a tabletop.

As a teacher you will always be trying to develop the cognitive skill levels of
your pupils. It is important that your lesson planning reflects this desire.

47

You cannot teach the cognitive skill directly, as it is a development that
goes hand in hand with firstly the acquisition of knowledge, and
subsequently an understanding of the knowledge and how parts of the
knowledge relate to each other.

As pupils get older they naturally acquire increasing amounts of
knowledge and the opportunities for demonstrating higher level cognitive
skills broaden. So the reason that objectives requiring higher level
cognitive skills are fewer in courses aimed at younger pupils, is because
the breadth of knowledge on which to context the higher level skills is
relatively small but not altogether missing.

Take the case of the highest cognitive skill, “evaluation”. It is not difficult
to imagine an activity which asks pupils in Grade 3 to decide which of two
types of torch battery they would prefer to have in their torch.

The activity may require pupils to decide what they are to look for as
qualities of the two types of battery. The pupils either make collective oral
responses, or, they may write their thoughts down individually. Then
pupils would explain how each of the qualities is determined. And finally
the results of the determination are used to make the evaluation.

True, the pupils may not be able to express their evaluation in mature
language, but the thought processes leading to distinctions and
preferences will have been used.


Larry
“I want the red ones they are brighter.”

Amery
“Mum gets black ones, she says the’re less money”

Toka
“I never want the black ones they finish soon”

Yolanda
“I like the picture on the black ones”

Larry & Amery respond with;
“That doesn’t matter”

Figure 2.8.2

Other domains commonly used as a reference in teaching are the Affective
and the Psychomotor Taxonomies.

The affective domain focuses on pupils’ attitudes, values and dispositions.
Learning outcomes in this domain are more difficult to measure, however
it is possible to measure them. As with Figure 2.8.1, Figure 2.8.3 provides
a useful breakdown of the affective levels that are generally accepted and
used. Each affective level is briefly described in order to convey the basic
requirements implied by the verb with sample indicator verbs and learning
outcomes provided for each level.



48




Affective (Values, Dispositions) Domain
Level
Action Verbs
Outcome Example
Receiving
Attend, accept, listen,
By the end of the women's studies
selectively attend to
program, pupils will listen attentively to
alternative views on selected issues.
Responding
Comply with, approve,
By the end of the elementary education
volunteer, applaud,
program, pupils will able to comply with
acclaim
PL 94-142.
Valuing
Increase proficiency in,
By the end of the political science
relinquish, assist,
program, pupils will be able to debate
support, deny, protest,
numerous sides to an argument.
debate
Organization
Balance, organize,
By the end of the environmental studies
formulate, accommodate program, pupils will be able to organize
the conservation efforts of urban,
suburban and rural communities.
Characterization Respect, interpret, use
By the end of the counselling program,
by a value
evidence, maintain
pupils will be able to objectively interpret
complex
objectivity
evidence presented by clients during a
therapy session.
Figure 2.8.3

(Gronlund, N.E. (2000). How to Write and Use Instructional Objectives. Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.)

Like the affective domain, the psychomotor domain is more difficult to
measure as the taxonomy focuses on the development of pupils’ physical
abilities and skills. The learning outcomes in this domain may include
performances, skills in a sport, typing skills, painting, playing an
instrument, manipulating another person’s limbs during physical therapy
and demonstrating a dissection.

As indicated by the action verbs, measuring pupils’ achievement in this
domain require the pupils to carry out a performance. Figure 2.8.4
provides a useful breakdown of the psychomotor levels that are generally
accepted and used. Each level is briefly described in order to convey the
basic requirements implied by the verb with sample indicator verbs and
learning outcomes provided for each level.
















49

Psychomotor (Skills) Domain
Level
Action Verbs
Outcome Example
Perception
Chooses, describes, detects,
By the end of the music theatre
differentiates, distinguishes, isolates, program, pupils will be able to
relates, selects, separates
relate types of music to
particular dance steps.
Set
Begins, displays, explains, moves,
By the end of the physical
proceeds, reacts, responds, shows,
education program, pupils will
starts, volunteers
be able to demonstrate the
proper stance for batting a ball.
Guided
Assembles, builds, calibrates,
By the end of the physical
Response
constructs, dismantles, displays,
education program, pupils will
dissects, fastens, fixes, grinds, heats, be able to perform a golf swing
manipulates, measures, mends,
as demonstrated by the
mixes, sketches
instructor.
Mechanical
Assembles, builds, calibrates,
By the end of the biology
Response
constructs, dismantles, displays,
program, pupils will be able to
dissects, fastens, fixes, grinds, heats, assemble laboratory equipment
manipulates, measures, mends,
appropriate for experiments.
mixes, sketches
Complex
Assembles, builds, calibrates,
By the end of the industrial
Response
constructs, dismantles, displays,
education program, pupils will
dissects, fastens, fixes, grinds, heats, be able to demonstrate proper
manipulates, measures, mends,
use of woodworking tools to
mixes, sketches, demonstrate
high school students.
Adaptation Adapts, alters, changes, rearranges,
By the end of the industrial
reorganizes, revises, varies
education program, pupils will
be able to adapt their lessons
on woodworking skills for
disabled students.
Origination Arranges, combines, composes,
By the end of the dance
constructs, creates, designs,
program, pupils will be able to
originates
create a dance step.
Figure 2.8.4

(Gronlund, N.E. (2000). How to Write and Use Instructional Objectives. Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.)


50




2.9 Achievement Levels



Knowing the learning outcomes helps you to regularly refer to them with
the pupils. Discussion will help to maintain direction for yourself in your
teaching, and for your pupils in their learning. It will also highlight the
quality of results the learning outcomes require if they are to be fully
achieved.

It is good practice to always have the learning outcomes at hand
during teaching, and for the pupils to be fully aware of them
throughout the learning process.


Learning outcomes specify what pupils should be able to do if the outcome
is achieved. In many cases deciding whether or not the outcome has been
achieved is simple, either it has or it hasn’t.
f
However, one thing that will become clear, when studying the learning
outcomes, is that many learning outcomes can either be fully achieved, or,
partially achieved, depending upon the quality of the pupil response.

If a pupil can add 54 + 76 then the learning outcome requiring “pupils to
add 2-digit numbers with regrouping”
has been achieved.

But there are learning outcomes that pupils may achieve to some degree,
but not to the whole intent of the outcome. The qualifier attached to the
outcome may not be wholly satisfied. This poses the problem of how to
record the level of success for a pupil whose work is being judged for a
specific learning outcome.

The recording tool developed takes the specific learning outcome, and
provides a list of statements that describe the different levels of
competency demonstrated by the pupil. The competency statements are
usually called achievement levels. The number of possible achievement
levels for each learning outcome depends on the nature of the outcome
itself as well as on the number of aspects to be assessed or monitored in
the outcome.

Take for example the learning outcome;

“pupils can use a range of punctuation marks correctly”.

While the focus on the outcome is on punctuations, the range of
punctuation marks will determine the ultimate achievement levels. The
range of punctuation marks may even be well defined, such as – full stop,
comma, question mark, exclamation mark, speech marks .

For a learning outcome such as this, a pupil may partially meet the
outcome by correctly using some of the range, or may use all members of
the range correctly for some of the time or a few of the range or even none
of the range. The highest level of achievement is usually the level the
learning outcome expects.


51

A useful way of tracking the progress of pupils in this type of situation is
to construct tables that specify the level to which the pupil has met the
learning outcome.

Just as involving pupils in unpacking and writing learning outcomes is
seen as a valuable aid to learning, so is the involvement of pupils in
recognizing and writing levels of achievement. Furthermore, allowing your
pupils to maintain their own progress record can add to the involvement
that the pupil feels. Ownership of progress is being encouraged.

E An example is shown in Figure 2.9.1.

Progress record for punctuation

Class ……………….

Pupil ………………………..

Punctuation
Level
Achievement Levels
Check date
4
Good use of all punctuation most of the time





3
Good use of most punctuation most of the






time
2
Correct use of punctuation is inconsistent






1
Rarely uses punctuation other than full stop





0
Has difficulty with all punctuations.







Figure 2.9.1

The degree to which the learning outcome has been achieved is divided for
convenience into five levels. Each level describes in general terms what the
pupil is expected to demonstrate when using punctuations in sentence
construction. The boxes under “check date” are for a date and tick to be
entered.

Figure 2.9.2
is a sample that has been completed for Dwight who is in
class 6K.

Progress record for punctuation

Class

…6K…….
Pupil
……Dwight………..

Punctuation
Level
Achievement Levels
Check date
4
Good use of all punctuation



Oct
most of the time
3
Good use of most


Jul
Sep

punctuation most of the
time
2
Correct use of punctuation
Feb
May



is inconsistent
1
Rarely uses punctuation






other than full stop
0
Does not use any







punctuation







Figure 2.9.2

His punctuation was checked in Feb, May, July, September and October.
By October he had reached Level 4, and the learning objective of “pupils

52

can use a range of punctuation marks correctly”, has been achieved and can
be recorded on his record of achievement.

Of course the quality of the feedback that Dwight receives, and the
guidance it provides over the months will be crucial to Dwight moving from
Level 2 to Level 4.

Let us look at the Grade 4 Mathematics objective’

“Pupils will be able to find the sum of 2- to 4-digit whole numbers with and
without regrouping”

Unpacking this outcome would obtain several specific pupil learning
outcomes that may include the following;

finds the sum of two 2- to 4-digit whole numbers with and without
regrouping
finds the sum of three 2- to 4-digit numbers with and without
regrouping

Using the specific learning outcomes that we unpacked from the objective
above, a table of achievement levels can be created, as shown in Figure
2.9.3.

Finds the sum of two 2- to 4-digit whole numbers with and without
regrouping

L4 Correctly sums two 2- to 4-digit whole numbers with multiple and
consecutive regroupings most times.
L3 Correctly sums two 2- to 3-digit whole numbers with multiple
regroupings most times but difficulty with 4-digit numbers.
L2 Correctly sums two 2- to 3-digit whole numbers but with single
regroupings but difficulty with multiple regrouping and with 4-digit
numbers.
L1 Only adds two 2- to 3-digit numbers with no regrouping but still makes
mistakes sometimes.
L0 Has great difficulty with adding two numbers with and without
regrouping
Finds the sum of three 2- to 4-digit numbers with and without regrouping

L4 Correctly sums three 2- to 4-digit whole numbers with multiple and
consecutive regroupings most times.
L3 Correctly sums three 2- to 3-digit whole numbers with multiple
regroupings most times but difficulty with 2 or more 4-digit numbers.
L2 Correctly sums three 2- to 3-digit whole numbers but with single
regroupings but difficulty with multiple regrouping and with 4-digit
numbers.
L1 Only adds three 2- to 3-digit numbers with no regrouping but still
Makes mistakes sometimes.
L0 Has great difficulty with adding three 2- to 3-digit numbers with and
without regrouping

Figure 2.9.3

The unpacking process may identify other more specific learning
outcomes. For example the learning outcome

adds two 2- to 4-digit whole numbers with and without regrouping.

may further be unpacked to the following;


53

adds two 2- to 4-digit whole numbers without regrouping;
adds two 2- to 4-digit whole numbers with single regrouping;
adds two 2- to 4-digit whole numbers with multiple and consecutive
regrouping;

Similarly the learning outcome

adds three 2- to 4-digit numbers with and without regrouping

may further be unpacked to the following;

adds three 2-digit whole numbers with and without regrouping;
adds three 2- to 3-digit whole numbers with and without regrouping;
adds three 2- to 4-digit whole numbers with and without regrouping;

If we go back to the course objective example used in earlier section;

“Pupils will be able to compare the processes of internal and external
fertilization”


Using the specific learning outcomes that we unpacked from the objective,
a table of achievement levels can be created, as shown in Figure 2.9.4.

Displays knowledge (knows) about fertilization

L3
Includes accurate comment on fertilization as a process
L2
Minor inaccuracies in the process description
L1
Comments riddled with inaccuracy
L0
Unable to make any valid comment
Selects relevant aspects of fertilization for comparison

L2
Selects and includes a range of relevant points
L1
Has missed at least one relevant point
L0
Fails to select any relevant aspects that lend to comparison
Justifies including the various points for comparison

L2
All points are appropriately justified
L1
Fails to justify at least one point
L0
No valid justification made
Describes pertinent aspects of fertilization

L2
All pertinent aspects are well described
L1
At least one aspect is not described
L0
Description either absent or irrelevant
Develops a report that highlights the comparison

L1
The language is appropriately applied to draw out the comparison
L0
The language fails to draw out comparison

Figure 2.9.4











54


2.10 Course Presentation



It has already been established that the course document carries three
essential features.

- the knowledge that has to be acquired;
- the skills that have to be developed;
- the objectives that package the knowledge and skills;

There are different ways in which these three components can be
presented in the course document.

One way is for the course to be year-determined. This is the situation
where the course runs for a discrete period such as one term, one year,
two years, six years, and all the material to be taught and learnt during
that period is described. Often the material is divided into convenient
topics for teaching.

Another way is for the course to be strand-determined. This is the
situation where the course presents the material, to be taught and learnt,
in strands where all the materials in a given strand are made up of
knowledge and skills that are related. These strands run for an extended
period – in primary schools typically six years. The strands are divided into
attainment levels, often but not necessarily, coinciding with the school
year that has just been completed. The attainment levels represent the
learning outcomes that are to be achieved. All strands do not necessarily
run at every level.

More will be said about strands and attainment levels later in this
handbook.

Figures 2.10.1 and 2.10.2 represent year-determined and strand-
determined methods respectively.



Year–determined




Gr 1
Gr 2
Gr 3
Gr 4
Gr 5
Gr 6



Figure 2.10.1

55

In year-determined courses the link between one year and the next is not
explicit. Of course it would be possible to determine the link between the
level in one year and the level in another year, on the same theme, by
studying the content and skills described for each year. And that is exactly
what is done when the course material is laid out in a strand-determined
way.


Strand–determined




S1
S2
S3
S4
S5





Gr1



Gr2



Gr3



Gr4



Gr5



Gr6



Figure 2.10.2

Your course document will almost certainly present the material in a
logical order for teaching, whether it is year-determined or strand-
determined. This is because there is normally an obvious order for building
knowledge and skill. This provides you with a sensible way of determining
the content of your lessons, and the best order for teaching.

What the course document will not do is tell you how much content should
go into a single lesson, unless resources have already been developed
which provide suitable lesson plans. The amount that you put into a single
lesson will largely be governed by your experience as well as what it would
be necessary to achieve the learning outcome.

The following factors will play a part in determining the volume of content;

-
the amount of time that needs to be spent considering the learning
outcomes from the previous lesson,
-
the anticipated difficulty that the new learning outcomes pose for
pupils,
-
the problems in the organization of issuing and collecting equipment,
-
the amount of time required at the end of the lesson for consolidating
or monitoring learning outcomes,
-
any external interference that might shorten the time available such
as assemblies, sports practice, meetings; the usual interruptions that
happen from time to time.



56


2.11 Basic Skills; Literacy and

Numeracy



If you wish to build a house you will not only need to have both the
building materials and the tools available but you should also have the
knowledge and experience on building houses. If the house is to be made
of wood, then you will need planks of wood, and saws and hammers. If the
house is to be made of concrete, then you will need the concrete blocks,
and the trowel and spirit level. Using the right tools in the correct way will
mean that in the end you will have a completed house.

But before the house can be built, the tools must be in good condition. The
saw must be sharp, the spirit level must be accurate. You as the builder
must be prepared and be familiar with the plan and all the tools that you
need.

If we are to help build knowledgeable, skillful, competent pupils, the right
tools need to be available and you as the teacher must be prepared for this
to happen. Numeracy and Literacy are the basic tools that empower pupils
to become knowledgeable, skillful and competent. In addition, reading,
writing and numeracy skills are the basic building blocks of a successful
education and are vital to every pupil’s future life opportunities. These
tools need to be sharp.

You on the other hand need to be able to identify which pupils are
numerate or literate and which pupils are not and to be able to do that you
need to know the tools that will enable you to do that.

A pupil who is numerate and who is literate is in the best position to
expand their pool of knowledge and skill. They are in the best position to
communicate their needs. They are in the best position to offer skills to the
society of which they are a part. In other words, a numerate and literate
person has a better chance of becoming a successful member of the society
than an innumerate and illiterate person.

A pupil who does not develop numeracy and literacy skills becomes
increasingly reliant on others for information and guidance. It is your role
as the teacher to help these pupils so they can develop the appropriate
numeracy and literacy skills. It is true that there are certain skills that do
not require numeracy or literacy. For example, a person may have a
natural aptitude for things mechanical, the sort of person who can take a
motorbike engine to pieces and put it back together again.

The most important service we can give to our pupils is one in which the
development of their numeracy and literacy is pursued with planned care
and concern. We need to be certain that each pupil is progressing, and is
doing so at a rate best suited to the pupil. Experience tells us that pupils
progress in their development of numeracy and literacy at differing rates.
The way in which these basic skills are taught, and the way in which the
progress is monitored, needs to reflect this.

57


Developing pupils’ literacy and numeracy skills has long been at the heart
of development work throughout the primary school level. Every pupil
needs to develop competency in the basic skills of literacy and numeracy
from an early age as both are essential if pupils are to fulfil their potential
in their careers and as adult members of the community. Yet both are not
being given the urgency that they deserve both in the school and in the
community.

Literacy and Numeracy are both implicit in the right to education and are
enshrined in various international conventions such as the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights (1948), Hamburg Declaration (1975), etc.

The rationale for recognising literacy (and numeracy) as a right is the set of
benefits it confers on people. Both are fundamental to informed-decision
making, people empowerment especially the most vulnerable and
enhancing people’s active participation in the community. They are also
considered as providing the foundation for further studies in other
discipline.

Literacy and Numeracy is at the core of education in particular the
Education for All (EFA) initiative. They are also important in all efforts to
create a literate and numerate society. A literate mother is more likely to
send her children to school than an illiterate mother. A literate and
numerate community is more than a community with high literacy and
numeracy rate. It is one where both literacy and numeracy are valued by
everyone in the community. It is one where the diverse needs and priorities
of all groups, especially the most vulnerable, are acknowledged and
recognised.

Illiteracy on the other hand is closely linked to poverty in that an illiterate
and innumerate person has very limited opportunities throughout life.
Communication becomes a huge challenge for those with low levels of
literacy and numeracy. Consequently they do not acquire the basic every
day skills that they need to become effective members of their respective
communities.

For these reasons all efforts should be taken to ensure that every pupil
leaves school with the necessary knowledge and skills that they need to
survive rather than becoming a burden to the community. This module
“Are our pupils learning? How do we know?” aims to empower both serving
teachers as well as teacher trainees to be able to ensure that they
effectively transfer the appropriate knowledge and skills to the pupils
under their care. For teachers to be able to carry this out effectively they
need to be fully aware what knowledge and skills or more specifically
what learning outcomes pupils are expected to achieve as a result of
having taken the course. Teachers also need to be able to identify the level
achieved by each pupil in each of the learning outcomes.



58



Chapter Three



3.1 Planning for teaching; where


do we start?


Imagine finding yourself in the middle of the forest in your country and
your task is to save a particular species of lizard (iguana) that is
disappearing from the forest. As a high school student you took science
and then biology as subjects during which you came to know about
iguanas and where they usually live, up in the trees. You are given a few
equipment; a book on insects with a chapter on lizards, a net for catching
insects, a pair of binoculars, a knife and a few others. In your studies you
came to know of all of the equipments and where they can effectively be
used.

No one has briefed you about lizards on simple things such as; what do
they eat and when do they eat? When do they go to sleep? How would they
react to humans? Do they bite and are they poisonous? So, your first
reaction would most probably be to ask yourself; “Where do I start?” “What
do I need to do?”

You will be fortunate if there was someone there to help guide you in what
you have to do so you know what to do and how to use the limited
equipment you have been given. But if help is not available, then you have
the option of carefully planning out what you have to do. Perhaps read the
book especially the chapter on lizards to learn more about them and their
behaviour, their eating habits, where they are likely to be found, etc. You
might even decide to seek out the advice on the expert in the village
nearby. The chances are that you are likely to be successful in your task.

Alternatively you might just decide to scout the forest with the pair of
binoculars and when you see one you might just try and use the net to
catch the lizard if you are lucky to find one. Your chances of success are
very minimal and you might end up ultimately chasing the lizards away
from the forest and they might eventually disappear.

The above analogy sounds very familiar to many situations in classrooms
throughout our region. Imagine you are a new teacher being put in a
classroom with many pupils. Your role is to teach each one of them so that
they are able to acquire the knowledge and skills expected at the end of
each level. If you are a qualified teacher your task would be easier than if
you do not possess the minimum academic qualifications. In your training
to be a teacher you would have learned about children and how they
develop. You also learn about various teaching methodologies and on how
to prepare your lessons.

Having achieved the minimum academic qualifications however does not
make one a competent and professional teacher although it is more likely
for a qualified teacher to become one than one without the required

59

qualifications. But even with the minimum qualifications a teacher is most
likely to focus on delivery of content rather than on the achievement by
pupils of the expected learning outcomes as outlined in the curriculum.

The task of making sure that pupils acquire the appropriate knowledge
and skills becomes a daunting one if the teacher does not have the
relevant qualifications or competencies. Without proper help and guidance
unqualified and incompetent teachers would not be in a position to decide
which pupils have achieved and which ones have not achieved the learning
outcomes. This means that they would not be in a position to adjust their
teaching so as to provide the assistance pupils need if they are in no
position to determine which pupils have acquired the appropriate
knowledge and skills and which ones have not.

The question of “where to start” becomes one that both qualified and
unqualified teachers have to grapple with. Section 2.1 on Setting the
Platform for learning outlines what teachers need to do to ensure that the
classroom environment is conducive for effective teaching and learning to
take place. But even in a conducive environment, the success of the
teaching and hence pupil’s learning depend largely on the teacher.

Teachers are expected to plan out on how they are going to teach their
pupils. Teachers need to set clear targets for pupils as well as a realistic
plan for achieving them. They are also expected to be able to use
purposeful assessment to determine whether pupils have achieved the
targets or not.

To fulfil these expectations teachers need training and all the support they
can get. This includes support on effective classroom leadership and
management, good curriculum and lesson planning, high quality and
effective teaching, efficient classroom organisation and use of purposeful
assessment to gather appropriate information about pupils’ strengths and
weaknesses. Knowledge of and familiarity with the curriculum including
the curriculum expectations are good areas to start.

Planning a lesson is an art and is an important skill or competency that all
teachers need to acquire. This section of the module provides useful
suggestions for teachers to follow when planning a lesson.














60



3.2 Framing a lesson plan



It is a useful practice to develop a format that is suited to most lessons
that you have with pupils. It is an essential practice to develop a plan for
every lesson that you have with pupils.

This does not prevent a lesson developing differently from what you had
planned. What it does is ensure that sufficient thought has been put into
how the lesson time is to be spent, and in particular it makes sure that
specific course objectives are targeted and that specific learning outcome
are recognized. A lesson plan is a framework for a lesson. Imagine a lesson
as a journey, and then the lesson plan is the map. It shows you where you
start, where you finish and the route to take to get there.

Planning a lesson is essential and is a special skill that is learned in much
the same way as other skills. Essentially the lesson plan sets out what the
teacher hopes to achieve over the course of the lesson and how he or she
hopes to achieve it. Usually they are in written form but they don't have to
be. New or inexperienced teachers may want to or be required to produce
very detailed plans - showing clearly what is happening at any particular
time in the lesson. However in a realistic teaching environment it is
perhaps impractical to consider this detail in planning on a daily basis. As
teachers gain experience and confidence, they develop the ability to plan
more quickly and very experienced teachers may be able to go into class
with just a short list of notes or even with the plan in their heads.

When a teacher is able to create their own lesson plans, it means that they
have taken a giant step toward "owning" the content to be taught and the
methods to use. Acquiring this skill is far more valuable than being able to
use lesson plans developed by others. It takes thinking and practice to
hone this skill, and it won't happen overnight, but it is a skill that will help
to define you as a teacher. Knowing "how to plan a lesson" is far more
important than knowing "about lesson planning" and is one of the
important competencies teachers need to acquire. It is an important step
along the way to becoming a professional teacher. Regardless of the form,
there are fundamental components of all lesson plans that you should
learn to write, revise, and improve.

One may ask, “Why do we need a lesson plan?” Well, one of the most
important reasons for planning your lesson is that the teacher needs to
identify his or her objectives for the lesson. Teachers need to know what it
is they want their pupils to be able to do at the end of the lesson that they
couldn't do before.

61

Here are some more reasons why planning is important;

gives the teacher the opportunity to predict possible problems and
therefore consider solutions.

makes sure that the lesson is balanced and appropriate for the
class.

gives teacher confidence.

good practice and a sign of professionalism
A sample lesson plan format is shown in Figure 3.2.1, and a lesson
planned on that format is shown in Figure 3.2.2.
Class: ________
Class size____
Date: __________
Course: _____________
Lesson duration _______
Specific learning outcome(s)
Key concepts
Materials required
Introductory approach
Lesson development
7Lesson conclusion
Pupil activity for feedback
Lesson evaluation
Handling content
Pupil involvement
Aspects to be revisited
Figure 3.2.1
62


Class
: 4A

Class size 33
Date: 20th October 2005

Course:
Science
Lesson duration: 50 minutes
Specific learning outcomes
Pupils can identify and explain the functions of flower parts

Key concepts
Linking flower part to the function of that part
Materials required
A range of flowers, hand lenses, prepared handouts
Introductory approach 5 minutes
1. Recap by oral interaction (questioning and voluntary response) on the major
parts of a flowering plant.
2. Draw attention to the specific objectives for this lesson.
3. Refer to previous homework requiring pupils to read up on flower parts.
Lesson development 10 minutes (1-4)+ 15 minutes (5-6)

1. The collection of flowers is placed where they will be accessible to pupils.
2. All pupils told to stand still wherever they like in the classroom.
3. Many chosen as group leader, and any other pupil that can touch Mary
without moving their feet become part of Mary’s group.
4. Mary’s group get together to determine 5 questions relating to flower function
and structure. All other pupils independently attempt to list on paper 10
points that relate to flower function and structure.
5. Mary’s group asks one of their questions at a time, and the class attempts to
respond orally using the points they have independently produced. This is
repeated for each of Mary’s group questions, allowing time for responses and
discussion.
Lesson conclusion
Conclude by covering any important points missed, and amplify others by
further discussion
Pupil activity for feedback 10 minutes
Prepared handout which lists two columns headed flower part and function.
Pupils complete columns by entering either the flower part or the function,
whichever is missing
Lesson evaluation
Handling content
Group selection method worked fine, more flowers needed next time
Pupil involvement
Most were busy but next time let the responding group work in pairs to compile
their points as this time a few did not give much thought to it
Aspects to be revisited
Handout showed confusion between anther and pollen.
During class discussion no-one mentioned flowers that were small and hardly
noticeable


Figure 3.2.2





63


3.3 Description of a lesson plan

format

Although the lesson plan format is largely self explanatory, it is probably
worthwhile going through it here to amplify the possibilities of each section.

Class

Although the plan format says class, it could equally well to say “form” but
probably not “year”. Different classes in the same year might evoke different
comments in the Lesson appraisal box.

Class size

The class size needs to be taken into consideration, particularly when
equipment and materials may be involved. Distribution and sharing of
resources need to be part of the lesson planning, and class size will have an
impact on this.

Date

Although the date is of no immediate significance, its record will mean that
in the long term the lesson can be placed in the time-context of all other
lessons. This might become important when looking at the development of
skills that are found reappearing throughout the course.

Duration

The length of time available for the lesson will determine how much can be
covered during the period.

Specific learning outcomes

The inclusion of specific learning outcomes on the lesson plan provides a
cross check with any other document on which the achieved learning
outcomes have been recorded. For example you might tick off course
objectives in the course book as you feel each has been taught towards. If at
any time you wanted to be reassured that an objective had been covered in
class, then locating the lesson plan would do that, and also provide other
information relating to the learning outcomes.

Key concepts

The key concepts will reflect the specific learning outcomes, but will also
provide a focus during the teaching.

Materials required

It is fair to assume that certain materials would be readily available in the
classroom. This box is not intended to have these repeatedly entered onto
every lesson plan. It is intended to list only those materials which are to
meet the peculiar needs of this particular lesson. Its presence on the lesson

64

plan format serves two important purposes. Firstly it requires you to think
through the whole lesson development in order to identify what the material
requirements might be. A lot of time can be wasted in discovering quarter-
way into a lesson that you have to disappear to find some missing item.
Secondly, it would allow someone else to gather the required materials on
your behalf. This might be a member of staff or might be pupils of the class
to be taught.

Introductory approach

The first five minutes and the last five minutes of any lesson are probably
the most important periods in terms of clarifying purpose (what is this
lesson for?) and determining level of success.

It is at the beginning that you can offer a logical progression into the current
lesson from the previous lesson with the same class. If the connection is
close, this period can be used to gather opinions or responses from the class
about the previous period.

You may also have required pupils to prepare in some way for the current
lesson. Pupils selected, or who volunteer, can provide a sample overview of
the degree of preparation.

This should then lead into making known the course objectives that apply to
this lesson. At the same time, you should translate the course
objectives into statements that emphasize specific learning outcomes.

Lesson development

The lesson development box summarizes the anticipated steps through
which the lesson develops. Since it is a summary it does not provide the
lesson detail. Nor can it be assumed that all summary steps are equally
demanding in terms of time or content. In the example given in Figure
S10.ii
, steps 1-4 were estimated to require 10 minutes and steps 5-6 were
estimated to take 15 minutes.

Also, the style of lesson development can vary widely.

-
whole lesson spent in discussion
-
whole lesson doing a textbook exercise
-
whole lesson engaged in an experiment
-
part lesson responding to questions, part lesson trying out an idea

The list of possibilities is endless. The important point is that you know
exactly what is implied by each of the steps that are recorded on the lesson
plan.

Conclusion

A brief period spent ensuring that the key concepts are highlighted in the
minds of pupils, and linking with the specific learning outcome statements.

Pupil activity feedback

This is a built-in opportunity for you to collect information that will allow
you to find out what course objectives have been met, and which may

65

require further attention. This information may come to you as
representative of the whole class, or may be available at individual pupil
level. This will depend on how the information is collected. Since by this
point very little time is left allocated to the lesson period, the way in which
the feedback is collected must be of a style that requires little of the pupils’
time.

Lesson evaluation

This box encourages you to immediately examine the success or otherwise
of the lesson. As shown in the example of Figure S10.ii, comments can be
made which on the one hand identify weakness, and on the other hand can
make suggestions for improvement the next time the lesson is taught. It also
pinpoints aspects of the lesson which need to be repeated if specific learning
outcomes are to be achieved.

Lesson plans for multi-class teaching

If you have the very difficult job of teaching several groups of pupils at
differing age levels, or at differing points of progress, it is probable that you
are teaching different unrelated topics at the same time.

Under those circumstances your lesson plan will need to reflect this.
Producing different lesson plans for the same time-tabled period will ensure
that you focus adequately for the various groups of pupils.

The same sub-headings to your plan will be applicable, but the amount of
time that you are available to a single group of pupils will be reduced.

The activity you plan for pupils will take account of the fact that you are
unavailable at certain times during the period. This will require planning
that expects a greater proportion of time to be spent by pupils doing
individual work, or in groups free to discuss between themselves.





















66


3.4 Preparing sound lesson plans




Preparing a lesson plan is one thing but preparing an effective and sound
lesson plan is another. Lesson plans make up the framework for instruction
in most classrooms and they may change and evolve as teachers attempt to
meet individual needs and create stronger lessons.

A great deal of teacher’s effectiveness in teaching has to do with their ability
to design and implement instruction that promotes and encourages
learning. A lesson plan, which is a (more or less) detailed plan of the goals
and activities for a particular class, is an important part of this process.
Preparing a lesson plan is when you as the teacher considers how to
organize and achieve some of the goals and objectives you outlined as you
planned the course.

While developing lesson plans for each class may seem like an onerous
burden at first, doing so is important because and becomes easier as you
acquire the skill with practice. The process of planning each lesson forces
teachers to reflect on what they want to accomplish in each class and how
best to do so. An effective lesson plan applies different instructional
methods to give the class variety and meet the needs of majority of pupils in
the class.

Here are some guidelines and questions to consider when preparing
instructionally sound lesson plans.

Clearly state the objective and learning outcomes

What is your rationale for the objectives?
How important are the knowledge and skills you are asking your pupils to
display and how do they fit into the broader context of the course you are
teaching?
What contents are you going to use and that you expect your pupils to know
and understand?
What do you want your pupils to gain from this lesson?
What do you want your pupils to know at the end of the lesson?
Is your objective and learning outcome(s) clearly stated?

Standard

What standards are you going to address in the lesson? Are they the
school’s standards or national standards or your own standards?
Is your objective in accordance with the standards you are using?

Assessment

How are you going to know if your pupils have mastered the concept/skill?
What instruments do you intend to use to evaluate your pupils’ learning
and the effectiveness of your teaching?
Does your assessment match your objective and learning outcome?

67

Is the assessment method you intend to use the most appropriate?
Will it provide you with the evidence you need about pupil learning?

Materials

What materials would you need to be able to teach the lesson effectively?
Will you need to make any special arrangements prior to teaching the
lesson?
How much preparation time would you need?

Instruction/Procedures

How will you teach the skill/concept?
Are you addressing all that the learning outcome and objective anticipates?
Are you using the most appropriate strategies to teach the lesson?
Are all of your pupils going to be actively engaged throughout the lesson?
What is your strategy for those who may finish early?
Are pupils supposed to have any prior knowledge of the subject area, or is
this an introductory lesson?

Enrichment

How do you intend to enrich the content/skills to cater for advanced
students?
Do you have an alternative scenario in case something unexpected happens
during the lesson?

Remedial/Intervention

What do you intend to do to pupils who need extra help?
Do you have an intervention strategy if needed?
Do you need to prepare activities if you need to reteach the concept/skill?
What more information do you need?


Although you may have planned well for your lesson always be prepared for
the unexpected. Be flexible and do not adhere to your plan rigidly as it is
only a guide for you to use. If you strictly follow your plan and fail to make
the necessary adjustments based on how your pupils react you may miss
valuable opportunities for you to connect with your pupils. As a rule always
find the lesson plan format that works for you as each teacher is different
and prefer to do things differently from those of his/her colleagues.




68


3.5 Classroom – a place where

mistakes are useful

Making mistakes is a natural, and possibly necessary, step in the
process of learning. Babies learn to stand by trying and failing
repeatedly. Toddlers learn to walk by tottering and falling repeatedly.

People learn to drive through a process of attempt, error, attempt again.
The first time a person tries to drive, usually the car engine stalls, or the
car jumps suddenly forward. Gradually the driver learns to co-ordinate
the clutch and the accelerator. But mistakes are made. They are
expected.

If ‘making mistakes’ is a pre-requisite part of learning, then perhaps the
‘safe life’ where no mistakes are made, would reflect a life where little
learning has taken place.

The classroom is supposed to be a place where learning predominates. It
therefore follows that the classroom atmosphere needs to be one in which
‘making mistakes’ is expected and where the consequence of making a
mistake is recognized as contributing to the formation of a better
platform for learning.

Hopefully you can build a classroom atmosphere in which mistakes and
‘chancing your arm’ are much preferred to silence. An atmosphere in
which pupils know that there are no repercussions such as
embarrassment, or shame, or being a target of fun, that follow from their
mistakes.

From the word ‘go’ your attempts to foster recognition of the value of
making mistakes will determine to what extent your classroom is a place
fully accepting of the role that mistakes play in learning.

The way in which you react towards pupils as they are in the process of
making mistakes will be central to the building of a worry-free
atmosphere.

Responding with reassuring statements such as;

“That’s exactly like the mistake I made yesterday”
“I’m glad you said that, most people think the same way”
“That’s not quite right; what if you rethink the second part”

As a teacher, there will be occasions when you inadvertently make
mistakes. Perhaps not often, but sometimes! On these occasions it will
be refreshing to acknowledge the error rather than attempt to hide it;
and indeed expose the error with a statement such as;
“You see even the brilliant make mistakes!”
“That’s my third mistake today”

One way of getting pupils to accept that mistakes are part of learning is
to construct an activity in which they are to ‘spot the mistakes’.


69

E For example, you can construct a short story that contains grammatical
mistakes. You ask pupils to listen to you reading the short story and to
raise their hand as soon as they hear you making a mistake.


As I come to school this morning they started to rain. I go
into the shop where it are dry. The shopkeeper asked me
what I --- doing. I said I will sheltering from the rain. She
said “are you going to bought something?” I said “I ---- no
money”. She was very kind and give me a biscuit. I said
thank you, and I left a shop.


Figure 3.5.1

E You can also get pupils to generate ‘mistakes’ on purpose. Imagine it is a
mathematics lesson. You ask every pupil to make one question, but to
prepare two answers, one being correct and the other being wrong. You
also secretly tell each pupil which answer is to be called out to the class
in answer to the question. The class then responds with;

That is a mistake’ or with ‘That is correct’

Lily:
Joe:


In the number 123, the 2 is
Is it true that 8 x 12 is the same

as; 8 x 10 plus 8 x 2


Correct
2 x 10
Correct Yes
Mistake
1 x 2
Mistake No
Michael:
Toutai:


Half of 58 is
In our class of 40, ¼ of us have no

desk. How many desks are there?


Correct 29
Correct 30
Mistake 24
Mistake 10

Figure 3.5.2
















70

3.6 Exemplars – models for

learning


An ‘exemplar’ is a model that acts as an example piece of pupil work. The
exemplar has certain qualities that allow it to be matched against specific
learning outcomes. It does not necessarily mean that the work is of the
highest standard, as learning outcomes are often judged at various
achievement levels, (as an example see later sections)

There is nothing to rival the effectiveness of exemplars in order to help
pupils see the connection between a specific learning outcome and the
work that shows the outcome being achieved.

Exemplars are not used when it comes to a question of fact, except that
the correct answer is the exemplar.

Exemplars have their value when you and your pupils need to judge
whether or not a learning outcome has been reached.

The type of pupil work that benefit from exemplars being available, range
across all subjects, and the following list shows how diverse they can be.

-
An essay on the favourite character seen in a video film.
-
A project to find out about local rainfall.
-
A graph of data collected in a traffic survey
-
A model aeroplane made out of paper
-
A woven table mat
-
A pencil drawing of a coconut tree
-
An experiment design to test the strength of coconut string

These tasks all produce a tangible product. The result of the pupils’ work
can be held, and looked at long after the work was first produced
(provided it is cared for).

There are two other types of exemplar that are short lived, and
unfortunately not available to pupils except for certain short periods of
time.

The first type involves perishable student work, such as.

-
cooking fish on an open fire
-
growing vegetables in the garden

The second type involves performance such as.

-
doing the long jump
-
shooting in netball
-
acting in a play
-
measuring temperature with a thermometer

It is true that the pupils can observe all of these being done well; and
they can discuss what qualities show that it is being done well. With
some activities they will be able to follow immediately in an attempt to

71

emulate the good performance. But unlike the tangible exemplars pupils
cannot easily refer back to them later.

As a teacher you may be in a position to build a bank of tangible
exemplars by using the work of current pupils. If you can it is certainly
worthwhile doing.

But, showing the exemplar to pupils is only half of the process. The other
half involves making certain that the pupils know exactly what are the
aspects of the exemplar that have been considered to be good. Since the
pupil work has been done in an attempt to meet learning outcomes, it is
these outcomes that should be the focus, when the exemplar is being
studied by the pupils.

If the learning outcomes are broken down into achievement levels, then
the outcome descriptions in those levels help to show pupils how slightly
better or slightly poorer work would appear in the exemplar.

You may, over time, be able to collect exemplars that range in quality, so
that pupils can see how they might adjust in order to move from one
level of quality to another.

Although it is desirable for the exemplars to be the work of a pupil or
pupils who are the same age or year of study as those pupils benefiting
from the exemplar, this may not always be possible; especially when you
are first trying to collect items for use as exemplars.

For certain types of work you can produce a model which exemplifies the
learning outcomes. For example in the skill of graphing you could
produce an annotated graph, Figure 3.6.1, that highlights all the
important features.

The data in the table below is used to draw a graph of;

Distance vs Time.

Draw the smoothest curve through your plotted points

Time of day
Total distance walked
(am or pm)
(Km)


4 am
0
5 am
3
6 am
6
7 am
9
8 am
12
9 am
15
10 am
18









72


Distance walked by the athlete vs The time of day




title

20
points clearly plotted
labelled

18

16


14
Distance walked

(km)
12

10
unit
line drawn for points

8

6
graduations
4


2








0

4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Time of day
Units shown

graduations shown
Axis labelled
(from 4 am to 10 am)

Figure 3.6.1





































73


3.7 Available
Resources



The course document described earlier is an essential guide to what is to
be achieved during your teaching. However, it is not a textbook and it is
not a lesson planner. Nevertheless it is an important guide for both
teachers and pupils.

If you are lucky there may be resources developed specifically to meet the
demands of the course document. If you are very lucky there may be a
resource developed that provides lesson plans to meet the demands of
the course document.

If you have not taught the course before, you should find out exactly
what materials are available to support your teaching.

The people who might be able to help you locate valuable resources are;

- other teachers in your school;
- the principal or deputy principal of your school who might hold a
reference library of all resources;
- older pupils who have done the course before;
- teachers of the same subject in other schools nearby;
- the subject specialist usually stationed at the curriculum centre;
- subject teachers association;

Resources that have been specifically developed for a course are usually
of two types; those for use by teachers (often described as teacher guides)
and those for use by pupils (often described as course units or pupil’s
workbook).

The objectives, containing the specific learning outcomes that are listed
in the course document, should feature prominently in any resources
specifically developed for the course. This provides teachers with a very
important link; that of working the course objectives into the teaching
process.

If you are not so lucky, you may have good resources, such as widely
published textbooks. However you need to realize that these will not have
been produced for the specific course that you are teaching. In this case
it will be left to you to establish the important link between the textbook
material, the course objectives, and, your teaching.

The resources already mentioned may contain activities that have been
designed to produce information on how well the pupils are learning, and
on how successful your teaching has been in guiding pupils to achieve
what the learning outcomes expects.

If such activities are absent, it will be left to you, the teacher, to devise
activities that serve this function. The development and inclusion of such
activities will mean that the resource pool available for the course will be
expanded in a valuable way. It may be useful to list them with a brief
description, so that if they are included in the resources already
described above, you will be in a position to recognize them.

74


Within the period of normal teaching

-
spontaneous observation of pupil behaviour
-
spontaneous oral interaction between teacher and pupil
-
spontaneous oral interaction between pupil and pupil

Within the period of normal teaching, but placed either at the very
beginning or at the very end of the teaching period

-
prepared oral questioning by teacher, with brief written
response
-
prepared oral questioning by pupil, with brief written response
-
prepared written activity by teacher with brief structured
written response

An activity that replaces normal teaching, because the activity takes over
a majority of the class-time for that period.

-
prepared written activity by teacher with response involving a
multi-step structure.


The way in which you handle the implementation of these activities; the
way in which you collect information from these activities; the way in
which you use the information yielded by these activities, can all have an
impact on the pupils in terms of successfully meeting the learning
outcomes of the course.















75




3.8 Feed forward – Preparation


for Learning


The term ‘feed-forward’ refers to those opportunities that can be put in
place beforehand so that pupils have the best chance of reaching the
learning outcomes. Feed-forward needs to be specific and well focused, if
it is to be useful to the pupil and improve the chances of the learning
outcomes being achieved.





Feed-forward
Learning
Feedback





Opportunities put in place
Opportunities put in place
before teaching and
during and after learning
learning is attempted
has been attempted

Figure 3.8.1


The most important feed-forward opportunities are;

-
pupils being forewarned of topics to be the focus of their lessons in
the immediate future. This information, coupled with
encouragement, opens up the possibility for pupils to prepare
themselves in advance of the teaching. It also provides an
opportunity for parents to be involved in the preparation.

For example a teacher says, “on Friday we will be talking about
different diseases in the village. Talk to your family; see what they
have to say about their experiences”.

-
pupils being in possession of the course objective statements and
more importantly the statements of specific learning outcomes as
they relate to the lesson that is shortly to be taught. In other words
the pupils have had a chance to read these targets before any
discussion or lesson that is intended to help pupils reach the
targets. This opportunity is further improved if you spend time
discussing and explaining what is involved.

For example a teacher says, “we are going to be studying disease in
the village. Lets talk about the sorts of things we need to find out”.
-
pupils studying pieces of work (exemplars), that have the qualities
being sought by the course objectives, and which show learning
outcomes that have been achieved.


76

For example a teacher says, “Here is a project that one of the
pupils did last year on disease in her village. Read through her
project, because she has some good ideas that we can use”.

-
pupils being provided with check-lists, marking criteria, and
achievement level statements that spell out exactly what aspects of
the piece of work they produce will be looked for as evidence of
achieved learning outcomes.

For example a teacher says, “When we are looking at how good
your work is, we will compare the work with these descriptions. I
will put them on the wall so that you can read them at any time
you want”.

Feed forward provides pupils with information that allows them to better
prepare themselves to the teaching and learning process. It allows them
to know in advance what teachers are going to focus on in their teaching
while at the same time allows them to have an insight of the quality of
work they are expected to produce in order to fully achieve the learning
outcomes.

Much of the previous sections on ‘Setting the Platform’ and
‘Planning for teaching’ relate to ideas that promote the achievement
of learning outcomes, and this includes the use of activities that
provide information that allows you the teacher, and the pupils to

“know where they are” in terms of reaching the requirement of the
learning outcomes. More importantly it allows you the teacher, and
the pupils to determine the best way to move towards achieving the
learning outcomes.

























77



Chapter Four



4.1 Knowing what to teach


Knowing the content of the course you are to teach as well as the course
objectives, the skills and learning outcomes are important consideration
for teachers. Without this knowledge would make it difficult for teachers
to decide where to start.

In section 2.10, ‘Course Presentation’, the idea of a strand-determined
arrangement of course objectives was described. To refresh ourselves,
this is the situation where the course presents the material, to be taught
and learnt, in strands where all the materials in a given strand are made
up of knowledge and skills that are related.

Both Language and Mathematics courses are ideally suited to being
presented in a strand-determined way. This is because a strand that
starts in Grade 1 is likely to continue to be developed right through to
the end of Grade 8, and beyond.

A particular strand will have numerous learning outcomes, and these
will be placed at intervals along its length. As a pupil advances along the
strand, learning outcomes are achieved, with the next learning outcomes
building upon the previous ones. Typically the course will have several
major strands, which we can call Key Strands.

For example;

In Language; ‘Reading’, ‘Speaking’, ‘Listening’ and ‘Writing’ would be
considered as Key Strands. In Mathematics; ‘Numbers’, ‘Operations’,
‘Measurement’, ‘Geometry’ and ‘Data’ would be considered as Key
Strands.

It is likely that each of the Key Strands can themselves be broken down
into a number of sub-strands. Consider the Key Strand “Operations” in a
Mathematics course. This can be broken into several sub-strands such
as ‘Addition’, ‘Subtraction’, ‘Multiplication’ and ‘Division’.

Within a strand or sub-strand the development of specific related skills
can be represented either by a skill-line or by a skill-ladder.

A skill-line can be used in situations where a particular skill is covered at
consecutive levels and where the language of the learning outcome is
sufficiently precise to make clear all the requirements of a learning
outcome at a particular level.

A skill-ladder can be used in situations where the language of the
learning outcome describes additional aspects to the skill that were
absent from the previous level.
To illustrate the difference between the two issues of skill-line and skill-
ladder, let us consider the sub-strand of addition in a mathematics

78

course. The overarching learning outcome might be “pupils are able to
add two numbers”.

A numeracy Example; “pupils are able to add two numbers”
E
A skills-line development of the overarching learning outcome might
comprise of the following specific learning outcome;
Grade 1:
Add two 1-digit whole numbers with/without carry.



Grade 2:
Add 1-digit and 2-digit whole numbers with/without carry.

Grade 3:
Add up to two 2-digit whole numbers with/without carry.

Grade 4:
Add up to two 3-digit whole numbers with/without carry.

Grade 5:
Add up to two 4-digit whole numbers with/without carry.

Grade 6:
Add up to two 5-digit whole numbers with/without carry.


As seen from the above example, the same skill “adding two numbers” is
being developed along the same line except for the number of digits
which increases as the pupil progresses up the educational ladder.

A skills-ladder development of the same overarching learning outcome
however might comprise of the following learning outcomes;

Grade 1:
Add two 1-digit whole numbers with/without carry.

Grade 2:
Add a 1-digit and 2-digit whole numbers with/without carry.
Add two fractions with 1-digit but same denominators
(restrict to 1 ).
2

Grade 3:
Add up to two 2-digit whole numbers with/without carry.
Add two fractions with 1-digit denominators that are the
same or multiples of each other.

Grade 4:
Add up to two 3-digit whole numbers with/without carry.
Add two fractions with up to 2-digit denominators that are
the same or multiples of each other. Add two 1-decimal
numbers with/without carry.

Grade 5:
Add up to two 4-digit whole numbers with/without carry.
Add two fractions with up to 2-digit denominators. Also add
up to two 2-decimal numbers with/without carry.

Grade 6:
Add up to two 5-digit whole numbers with/without carry.


Add two fractions with up to 2-digit denominators including


improper fractions. Add up to two 3-decimal numbers
with/without
carry.








79



A literacy Example
E
;
“pupils are able to read with understanding”

A possible skills-line development of the overarching learning outcome
i
m ght comprise of the following specific learning outcome;

Grade 1:
Read a simple sentence or phrase.

Grade 2:
Read and respond to questions based on a simple sentence.

Grad
e 3:
Read and respond to questions regarding the meaning of


words and content of a given genre.

Grade 4:
Read, understand and respond to questions relating to any
given genre (texts).

Grade 5:
Read, understand, question and respond to questions
relating to a variety of genres (texts).

Grad
e 6;
Read, understand, question and respond critically to a


variety of genres (texts).

A skills-ladder development of the same overarching learning outcome
o
h wever might comprise of the following learning outcomes;

Grade 1:
Read a simple sentence or phrase.

Grad
e 2:
Read and respond to questions based on a simple sentence.


Identify synonyms for a given word in the sentence.

Grade 3:
Read and respond to questions regarding the meaning of


words and content of a given genre. Identify synonyms as


well as antonyms for a given word in the given genre.

Grade 4:
Read, understand and respond to questions relating to any
given genre (texts). Identify synonyms as well as antonyms
for a given word in the given genre. Write a brief outline of
the main theme in the given genre.

Grade
5: Read, understand, question and respond to questions
relating to a variety of genres (texts). Identify synonyms as
well as antonyms of words in a variety of genre. Write a brief
outline of the main theme in a variety of genres. Describe the
main character or message portrayed by the genre.

Grade 6; Read, understand, question and respond critically to a
variety of genres (texts). Identify synonyms as well as
antonyms of words in a variety of genre. Write a brief outline
of the main theme in a variety of genres. Describe the main
character or message portrayed by the genre. Compare and
contrast the use of language in any two genres.

As seen from the two examples above, both the skill-line and the skill-
ladder approach emphasize the development of a skill. This is essential if

80

the progress of a pupil for a particular skill is to be monitored for the
purpose of promoting learning.
The skill-line and the skill-ladder provide both the pupils and the teacher
with a graphic representation that clearly places the learning outcomes
in order. Figure 4.1.1 shows how a course might be broken down to the
level of skill-line or skill-ladder.
Course
Key Strand
Key Strand
Key Strand
Key Strand
Key Strand
1
2
3
4
5
3
2
2
Sub-strands
Sub-strands
Sub-strands
3 Skill–lines
2 Skill–lines
1 Skill–line
3 Skill – lines
4 Skill–lines
3 Skill–ladders
1 Skill–ladder
3 Skill–ladders
2 Skill–ladders
Figure 4.1.1
Structure of a Skill-line
Learning Outcomes
Grade
Grade
Grade
Grade
Grade
Grade
1
2
3
4
5
6
Figure 4.1.2
Structure of a Skill-ladder
Grades 1-5 + Grade 6 Learning Outcome
Grade 6
Grades 1-4 + Grade 5 Learning Outcome
Grade 5
Grades 1-3 + Grade 4 Learning Outcome
Grade 4
Grades 1-2 + Grade 3 Learning Outcome
Grade 3
Grades 1 + Grade 2 Learning outcome
Grade 2
Grade 1 Learning Outcome
Grade 1
Figure 4.1.3
81

In the example shown in Figure 4.1.4, the sub-strand depicted is
‘Addition’ in the Mathematics course. This lies within the Key Strand of
‘Operations’.
A total of twenty learning outcomes are shown in the figure 4.1.5. They
are shown in sequence, and the year by which the outcome is expected to
be achieved is shown as a heading for each column.
For example:
Strand - Operations Addition +
Grade
1
2
3
4
5
6
1.1
2.1
3.1
4.1
5.1
6.1
Learning
1.2
2.2
3.2
4.2
5.2
6.2
outcomes
5.3
6.3
1.4
2.4
5.4
6.4
1.5
2.5
Figure 4.1.4
The detail for Figure 4.1.4 is shown in Figure 4.1.5.
The ‘Addition’ is again subdivided into five definite skill-lines or skill-
ladders. The learning outcomes, defined by the expectation of the
curriculum, that lie on a particular skill-line or skill-ladder clearly
reflect development of a particular skill from one year to the next.
Therefore as a pupil achieves successive learning outcomes along a skill-
line or up a skill-ladder, it follows that there is increasing competence by
the pupil in that skill.
Figure 4.1.5 shows a more detailed breakdown of the skill-lines that can
be created within the sub-strand of ‘Addition’.
The skill-lines shown in Figure 4.1.5 are:
- decomposing numbers
- adding whole numbers
- adding decimals
- adding fractions
- completing addition statements
The placing of outcomes under each year is given as a guide only. Some
pupils will achieve outcomes before the expected year; some pupils will
achieve outcomes in the expected year; and some pupils will achieve
outcomes after the expected year. The fact that all pupils do not achieve
the outcomes at the same time simply reflects the reality of learning. The
important point to bear in mind is that pupils should be given
opportunity to demonstrate success at a learning outcome, on as many
occasions as are required.
Where a pupil misses success at a learning outcome, you will need to
provide specific guidance to that pupil in order that there is a possibility
of improvement before the next opportunity to demonstrate achievement
of the learning outcome.
82


The learning outcomes represented in Figure 4.1.4 by the numbers in the
cells are listed in Figure 4.1.5.

Since language is the basis for literacy, and mathematics is the
basis for numeracy, it follows that it should be possible to monitor
the progress of pupils along strands that are identified as
contributing to literacy and numeracy.





Addition

Learning outcomes:

Pupils can:

1.1
decompose numbers up to 20
1.2
ad numbers up to 20
1.4
add fractions pictorially using ½, ¼ and 1 whole
1.5
complete addition statement of the form a + … = b
2.1
decompose numbers up to 100
2.2
add numbers up to 100 – no carrying
2.4
add fractions pictorially using ⅓, ⅔, ⅛
2.5
complete addition statement of the form a + … + b = c
3.1
decompose numbers up to 1000
3.2
add numbers up to 1000 – with and without carrying
4.1
decompose numbers up to 10,000
4.2
add numbers up to 10,000 – with and without carrying
5.1
decompose numbers up to 100,000
5.2
add numbers up to 100,000 – with or without carrying
5.3
add numbers with up to 2 decimal places
5.4
add two fractions with the same 1-digit denominator
6.1
decompose numbers up to 1,000,000
6.2
add numbers up to 1,000,000 – with or without carrying
6.3
add numbers with up to 3 decimal places
6.4
add two fractions with the same 2-digit denominator


and add two fractions with different 1-digit denominators


Figure 4.1.5








83


4.2 Preparing a Format for




Learning Outcomes

There are several advantages in establishing a format for presenting the
learning outcomes associated with a Key Strand or Sub-strand within a
course.

Firstly, the format allows for an outcome to be quickly identified.

Secondly, the formatting should reinforce the concept of development of
pupil competency as the pupil moves along a skill-line or up a skill-
ladder within a Key Strand or Sub-strand. The development of literacy
and numeracy is particularly well suited to representation in this way.

Thirdly, the formatting can be a useful guide to the production of
suitably designed records of achievement.

The figures shown here in Figures 4.2 are incomplete, but they provide a
framework by which a complete course can be broken down into learning
outcomes.

Figure 4.2.2 identifies the Key Strands, each of which is coded with a
Roman numeral.

E.g. Key Strand III is Operations

Figure 4.2.3 identifies the Sub-strands that lie within the Key Strand of
‘Operations’, each of which is coded with a capital letter.

E.g. Sub-strand
A is Addition

Figure 4.2.4 identifies individual skill-lines that lie within the Sub-strand
‘Addition’, each of which is coded with an Arabic numeral.

E.g. Skill-line 3 is decimals

So the learning outcome coded as:
III A 4.3 can be traced as: Pupils can add numbers with two decimal
places


Key Strand
Sub-
Anticipated
Skill-line
Learning
‘Operations’
Strand
‘Year’
‘decimals’
Outcome
‘Addition’
III A 4
3 4.3

Figure 4.2.1

84



Master Table - Mathematics


Learning Outcomes


Key Strand
Grade 1
Grade 2
Grade 3
Grade 4
Grade 5
Grade 6
I.Numeration

A. Count






B. Read & Write






C. Distinguish






II.Ordering

A. Compare






B. Interpolate






C. Estimate






D. Order






E. Count & Write





III.Operations

A. Addition
1.1, 1.2, 1.4,
2.1, 2.2, 2.4, 2.5,
3.1, 3.2, 3.6
4.1, 4.2, 4.6
5.1, 5.2, 5.3,
6.1, 6.2, 6.3,
1.5, 1.6
2.6
5.4, 5.6
6.4, 6.6
B. Subtraction






C. Multiplication






D. Division






IV.Geometry

A. Orientation






B. Plane shapes






C. Solids






D. Drawing






V. Measurement
A. Length






B. Area






C. Mass






D. Volume






E. Money






F. Time






G. Statistics







Figure 4.2.2



85

Key Strand – ‘Operations’




Sub-strands
Learning Outcomes







Grade 1
Grade 2
Grade 3
Grade 4
Grade 5
Grade 6
A.

Addition
1. Decompose
1.1
2.1
3.1
4.1
5.1
6.1
2. Whole numbers
1.2
2.2
3.2
4.2
5.2
6.2
3. Decimals




5.3
6.3
4. Fractions
1.4
2.4


5.4
6.4
5. Complete statement
1.5
2.5




B.

Subtraction
Whole numbers






Decimals






Fractions






Complete statement






C.

Multiplication
Whole numbers






Decimals






Fractions






D.

Division
Whole numbers






Decimals














Figure 4.2.3




86

Sub-strand – ‘Addition’



Skill-lines
Learning Outcomes






Grade 1
Grade 2
Grade 3
Grade 4
Grade 5
Grade 6
1. Decompose
1.1
2.1
3.1
4.1
5.1
6.1
Numbers up to
Numbers up to
Numbers up to
Numbers up to
Numbers up to
Numbers up to
10
50
100
1,000
10,000
100,000
2. Whole numbers
1.2
2.2
3.2
4.2
5.2
6.2
Sum up to 10
Sum up to 50 –
Sum to 100 – with Sum up to
Sum up to 10,000 Sum up to
no regrouping
and without
1,000 with and
with and without
100,000 with and
regrouping
without
regrouping
without
regrouping
regrouping
3. Decimals




5.3
6.3
Up to 2 decimal
Up to 3 decimal
places
places
4. Fractions
1.4
2.4


5.4
6.4
Pictorial addition Pictorial
Two fractions with Two fractions
of fractions
addition of
same 1 digit
with same 2-digit
involving:
fractions
denominator
denominator
1 whole
involving:
and
½

Two fractions
¼

with different 1-


digit
denominators or

2-digit
denominators of
the type 16 and

32; 5 and 25;12
and 48;


5. Complete
1.5
2.5




Addition Statement Type :
Type:
a + = b
a + + b = c
up to 20
up to 100

Figure 4.2.4

87

Figure 4.2.2 shows how a complete course such as Mathematics can be
tabulated to highlight Key Strands and Sub-strands. Each cell in the table
houses the learning outcomes within a Sub-strand for a given year.

Figure 4.2.3, takes one Key Strand ‘Operations’ and shows how the Sub-
strands are made up of a series of skill-lines or skill-ladders. Each cell in
the table houses a learning outcome identified by a code.

Figure 4.2.4 shows a breakdown of the Sub-strand ‘Addition’. It shows the
five skill-lines of:

1. Decomposing numbers
2. Adding whole numbers
3. Adding decimals
4. Adding fractions
5. Completing addition statements

Each cell in the table houses a learning outcome statement.

A skill-line is a series of learning outcomes relating to a particular skill
which shows the anticipated development of the skill from one year to the
next.

Each of the five ‘Addition’ skills listed above, has its own skill-line.
The learning outcomes that form a skill-line build upon each other. It is
usual for a learning outcome some way along a skill-line to be achieved,
only after the earlier learning outcomes have been achieved. This provides
us with a direct measure of the progress or level of achievement of a pupil
on a particular skill.

Figure 4.2.5 shows how a complete course such as Language can be
tabulated to highlight Key Strands and Sub-strands. Each cell in the table
houses the learning outcomes within a skill-ladder for a given year.

Figure 4.2.6 takes one Key Strand ‘Grammar’ and shows how it is made up
of a series of skill-ladders.

Figure 4.2.7
and Figure 4.2.8 show the skill-ladders that describe the
learning outcomes that the curriculum anticipates will be reached by
pupils in specific years for the ‘use of verbs’ and the ‘construction of
sentences’.

The nature of a mathematics course means that skill-lines are more
abundant than skill-ladders, and conversely, the nature of a language
course means that skill-ladders are more abundant than skill-lines.






88

Master Table - Language


Learning Outcomes


Key Strand
Grade 1
Grade 2
Grade 3
Grade 4
Grade 5
Grade 6
I.Listening

A. Identify






B. Distinguish






C. Comprehend






II.Speaking

A. Pronounce






B. Communicate






III.Reading

A. Identify






B. Express






IV.Writing

A. Composition Short, simple,
Short, simple,
Complex on a
Paragraphs in the Logically
Variety of sentence

personal
connected on a
connected topic
construction of a
ordered and
types
topic
composition
grammatically
correct to 150
words

V. Handwriting

A. Shape






B. Copy






C. Speed






V1. Grammar






A. Identify Parts






B. Verb Tenses






C. Use of adjectives





D. Punctuation






E. Time markers






F. Sentence






Complexity

Figure 4.2.5


89


Key Strand - Grammar



Skill-ladders
Learning Outcomes






Grade 1
Grade 2
Grade 3
Grade 4
Grade 5
Grade 6


Identify Parts

Common nouns,
Adverbs,

Abstract nouns


verbs, pronouns,
conjunctions

adjectives
Verb Tenses
Uses common
Uses common
Uses continuous
Uses conditional

Evidence of

verbs with both
verbs with future
form of common
form of common
expanded

present and past
tense
verbs
verbs
repertoire of
tenses
verbs
Use of Adjectives
Size, colour,

Regular
Irregular



appearance,
comparative and
comparative and

superlative
superlative
Punctuation
Uses full stops

Uses commas,

Uses exclamation

and capital
speech marks,
marks

letters
question marks
Time Markers

Uses:
Uses:
Uses:



today, tomorrow, always, never,
next, often,

yesterday,
sometimes
before, after
Sentence
Simple
Simple connected Complex
Paragraphing
Logically ordered Varied range
Complexity

Sentence



Simple to complex Complex to


Transformation
simple

Figure 4.2.6



90


Skill-ladder – ‘Verbs’







As for Grades 1-5,


and; uses an


expanded repertoire
Grade 6

of verbs.









As for Grade 1-4, and; employs a


range of tenses in extended pieces
Grade 5

of writing and in short speeches.







As for Grades 1-3, and; appropriate use of the
Grade 4

conditional verb form in complex sentence

construction.






As for Grades 1-2, and; uses a range of verb forms when


constructing complex sentences. Writes verb forms in either
Grade 3

active or passive voice. Modifies the verb when constructing

negative and interrogative sentences.





As for Grade 1, and; uses differing commonly met verbs within simple
Grade 2

sentences on a single connected topic. Uses the future form of the verb.






Pupil uses commonly met verbs with simple forms of past, present and present


continuous, in actions that describe themselves, their family and their immediate
Grade 1

surroundings, in simple sentences.

Figure 4.2.7



91

Skill-ladder – ‘Sentence Complexity’











As for Grades 1-5, and;


writing incorporates a varied
Grade 6

range of sentence types.











As for Grades 1-4, and; logically


orders paragraphs, and sentences
Grade 5

within paragraphs.









As for Grades 1-3, and; creates paragraphs by
Grade 4

clustering related sentences.








As for Grades 1-2, and; creates complex sentences from simple
Grade 3

sentences.







As for Grades 1, and; creates simple sentences that are connected on a
Grade 2

common theme.






Pupil creates simple sentences that describe themselves, their family and their
Grade 1

immediate surroundings.



Figure 4.2.8

92

4.3 ‘Writing’ – a Sample Strand
‘Writing’ is one of the Key Strands in a language course and a component
of literacy. It should be possible to identify a series of learning outcomes
that make up the Key Strand ‘Writing’. The same can be done for the
other Key Strands in ‘Language’ such as ‘Listening’, ‘Speaking’, and
‘Reading’.
Example learning outcomes are shown in Figure 4.3.4 to Figure 4.3.9.
These could be part of a Key Strand in ‘Writing’ covering the six years of
primary education.
It is very difficult to frame a learning outcome on a skill such as ‘writing’
when so many factors contribute to the standard and quality of the
writing. Looking independently at the factors that make a contribution
may be helpful, but can never replace the impression of quality that can
be judged from the writing.
Consider the analogy of judging the quality of a car. Looking at a car and
driving a car will leave you with an impression about its quality. That
impression might be more useful than would a study of the individual
components that make up the engine and body of the car.
This means there are subjective elements involved when matching a
piece of writing with a particular learning outcome. For this reason, it is
best to provide an example of pupil work that everyone agrees is
representative of the successfully achieved learning outcome.
An additional complication for ‘Language’ relates to the appropriate use
of grammar. Each of the outcomes for the Key Strand of ‘Writing’, given
as examples below, must be cross-matched with the expected
development of grammar at that stage.
The Learning Outcomes coded as ‘ LAW1’ represent a skill-ladder in the
Key Strand of ‘Writing’. (The interpretation of the code was given in
Figure 4.3.2)
The skill-ladder is represented as:
Grade
1
2
3
4
5
6
Learning
outcome
1LAW1
2LAW1
3LAW1
4LAW1
5LAW1
6LAW1
Figure 4.3.1
93



Skill-ladder from the Key Strand ‘Writing’
Code
Learning outcome


1LAW1
Pupils can write short, simple, personal sentences using

capitals and full stops


2LAW1
Pupils can write short simple sentences on a connected

topic, using capitals and full stops.


3LAW1
Pupils can write complex sentences on a connected topic,

using a range of punctuation (. , ? “ “ )


4LAW1
Pupils can paragraph sentences in a meaningful way in the

construction of a composition, using appropriate

punctuation. (compositions may be – a letter, a personal

account, a short story)


5LAW1
Pupils can write logically ordered and grammatically

accurate sentences and paragraphs in order to create a

composition of at least 150 words in length.


6LAW1
Pupils can write a variety of logically ordered and
grammatically accurate sentence types and paragraphs to

create a composition of at least 150 words in length.


Figure 4.3.2













94


Skill-ladder from the Key Strand – ‘Writing’








6LAW1 As for 5LAW1, and, pupil can write a


variety of logically ordered and grammatically


correct sentence types and paragraphs to create a
Grade 6

composition of at least 150 words in length.









5LAW1 As for 4LAW1, and, pupil can write logically


ordered and grammatically correct sentences and
Grade 5

paragraphs in order to create a composition of at least 150

words in length.







4LAW1 As for 3LAW1, and, pupil can paragraph sentences in a
Grade 4

meaningful way in the construction of a composition, using

appropriate punctuation. (compositions may be – a letter, a

personal account, a short story).






3LAW1 As for 2LAW1, and, pupil can write complex sentences on a


connected topic using a range of punctuation (. , ? “ “).
Grade 3







2LAW1 As for 1LAW1, and, pupil can write short simple sentences on a
Grade 2

connected topic using capital and full stops.






1LAW1 Pupil can write short, simple, personal sentences using capitals and full


stops.
Grade 1



Figure 4.3.3

95

Figure 4.3.4 to Figure 4.3.9 shows the LAW1 learning outcomes, together
with pieces of writing done by pupils that reflect the expectation of the
learning outcome.

Learning
outcome
1LAW1
Grade
1

Pupils can write short, simple, personal sentences using capitals and
full stops.


Exemplar pupil work:

-
I walk to school.
-
My father is a shopkeeper.
-
We sleep under a net.
Figure 4.3.4


Learning
outcome
2LAW1
Grade
2

Pupils can write short simple sentences on a connected topic, using
capitals and full stops.


Exemplar pupil work:

-
The school is far from my house. We walk there every
morning.

-
I buy rice at the store. My mother cooks it on the fire.
-
My father has a bicycle. We cleaned it on Saturday.
Figure 4.3.5

Learning
outcome
3LAW1
Grade
3

Pupils can write complex sentences on a connected topic, using a range
of punctuation (. , ? “ “ )

Exemplar pupil work:

-
The bus went around the island and picked up passengers on its
way. The driver shouted to people he passed, “Are you coming on
the bus?” Some of the people were adults but most were children.

-
After supper we went to the beach, then we saw that the tide
was out. So we could not swim and we went home again.

-
My sister had her birthday and lots of friends came to our house.
She said “thank you” to every one, because she was given nice

presents.

Figure 4.3.6


96

Learning
outcome
4LAW1
Grade
4

Pupils can paragraph sentences in a meaningful way in the construction of
a composition, using appropriate punctuation. (compositions may be – a
letter, a personal account, a short story)

Exemplar pupil work:

A personal account

My mother called me early in the morning, “Get up!”. I got up straight away
because I was excited. It was my first day to go to see my cousin.


I didn’t have much time to eat breakfast. It was already seven o’clock and
the bus left at half past seven. I ran with my brother to the bus stop and
we were just in time to catch the bus.


We spent the day with my cousin playing lots of different games, but in the
end we had to go back home. I was sad to leave.

Figure 4.3.7

Learning
outcome
5LAW1
Grade
5

Pupils can write logically ordered and grammatically accurate sentences
and paragraphs in order to create a composition of at least 150 words in
length.

Exemplar pupil work:

Imaginative prose

It was warm near the surface, but I noticed it got colder as I went deeper.
This didn’t matter because I enjoyed the water wherever I was. Lots and

lots of us would swim around, sometimes playing, sometimes eating, and
sometimes swimming away very fast when there was danger near.

I remember my mother telling me, “Always stay with your friends and
you will be safe”. But I have a problem. I like adventure.

It was Tuesday last week, and I decided to go swimming in the very
deep, dark water and look for new kinds of food. I was on my own. Well I
thought I was on my own, but when I turned around there was a really
big fish looking at me. It had really big sharp teeth and I was scared.


Luckily I was small enough to quickly go into the space between some
rocks where I was safe. I stayed there until my enemy went away.


After hiding for a long time I decided to swim back to join all my other fish
friends. I was safe in the middle of them all.

Figure 4.3.8


97



Learning
outcome
6LAW1
Grade
6

Pupils can write a variety of logically ordered and grammatically
accurate sentence types and paragraphs to create a composition of at
least 150 words in length.


Exemplar pupil work:

Descriptive prose

The mountain was so beautiful. It was not just the way that it seemed
to reach up like a giant into the clouds. The colours and sounds were so
different from those in the village.


All the different kinds of trees covering the mountain had different
shades of green. From a long way off it looked like a painting.

The closer we got, the less we could see of the mountain, but the more

we could smell the forest and hear the noise of the birds. Some were
twittering, “tweet-tweet, tweet-tweet”, others were screaming
“sceeeeech-sceeech”.

Occasionally a bird flew out of a nearby bush and a rainbow of colour
would hit my eye.

But the moment I remember was when an unusual sound could be

heard. Curiosity made me go towards the sound and this meant cutting
through the long grass and bushes because there was no path. The
sound got louder and louder, until suddenly in front of my eyes was an
amazing sight.


First a pool in the river, boiling like a pot on a fire. Then my eye followed
the water tumbling into the pool. Up and up and up went my eye, but I
couldn’t see the top. It was so high. A waterfall, what a sight!


Figure 4.3.9

98


4.4 Matching Questions to
Learning Outcomes

In the section on “Setting the platform for learning” (2.1) it outlines the
structure of objectives as well as the nature and structure of learning
outcomes. Learning outcomes must be phrased in language that is very
specific. It should then be possible to construct a question that will test
the specific learning outcome in an effort to determine where each pupil
stands.

If questions are constructed for the specific learning outcomes in a skill-
line or in a skill-ladder, then a direct measure of progress from one year to
the next for a given skill can be measured and monitored. This makes it
possible to use such information to monitor the progress of each pupil
over a skill-line or skill-ladder.

Let’s take the Sub-strand of ‘Addition’ in the Key Strand ‘Operations’.

There are five skill-lines as shown in Figure 4.2.4 :

1. Decomposing numbers
2. Adding whole numbers
3. Adding decimals
4. Adding fractions
5. Completing addition statements

Each of these five skill-lines has its own learning objectives that form the
basis of specific questions. The following figures, from Figure 4.4.1 to
Figure 4.4.20, give examples of this being done.


1 0
Skill-line Decomposing
numbers Grade
1








Pupil can decompose numbers up to 10.





Show the 10s and Units in:







1.
10
1 0







2.
9
9
Figure 4.4.1


1 0
Skill-line Decomposing
numbers Grade
2





Pupil can decompose numbers up to 50.





Show the 10s and Units in:







3.
15
1 0




5








4.
45
4 0

5
Figure 4.4.2

99




1 0 0





Skill-line Decomposing
numbers Grade
3







Pupil can decompose numbers up to 100.







Show the 10s and Units in:








5.
53

5 0





3









6.
97

9 0



7
Figure 4.4.3




1 0 0 0






Skill-line
Decomposing numbers

Grade 4









Pupil can decompose numbers up to 1, 000.









Show the 100s, 10s and Units in:














7.
74


7 0






4





8.
769

7 0 0



6 0



9
Figure 4.4.4




1 0 0 0 0







Skill-line Decomposing
numbers Grade
5











Pupil can decompose numbers up to 10, 000.











Show the 1 000s, 100s, 10s and Units in:











9.
947


9 0 0






4 0





7






10.
8
502

8 0 0 0



5 0 0



0 0

2
Figure 4.4.5

100

1 0 0 0 0 0
Skill-line
Decomposing numbers

Grade 6
Pupil can decompose numbers up to 100, 000.
Show the 10 000s, 1 000s, 100s, 10s and Units in:





11.
9, 679
9 0 0 0
6 0 0
7 09





12.
84, 036
8 0 0 0 0
4 0 0 0
0 0 0
3 06
Figure 4.4.6
Skill-line
Summing whole numbers

Grade 1
Pupil can sum numbers up to 10
1.
5 + 6 =
2.
3 + 2 + 4 =
3.
John had 4 buttons on his shirt, and Mere had 5 buttons on her shirt.
How many buttons do they have altogether on their shirts?
Figure 4.4.7
Skill-line
Summing whole numbers

Grade 2
Pupil can sum numbers up to 50, with no regrouping
4.
20 + 30 =
5.
22 + 16 =
6.
10 + 22 + 14 =
7.
Class 2H has 17 pupils and class 2K has 26 pupils. How many pupils
altogether in the two classes.
Figure 4.4.8
101

Skill-line
Summing whole numbers

Grade 3
Pupil can sum numbers up to 100, with and without regrouping
8.

80


9.
45


10.
34


15



16



27


-----


20



-------


-----


-------


-------






-------
11. Forty eight people from my village attended the meeting, and thirty four people
from the next village attended the meeting. How many people from the two
villages attended the meeting?
Figure 4.4.9
Skill-line
Summing whole numbers

Grade 4
Pupil can sum numbers up to 1,000, with and without regrouping
12. 600

13.
461

14.
530


85


280


305


30


107


179

--------


-------


--------

--------


-------


--------
15. A bicycle costs $300. John has $75, Ken has $108, and Mere has $54. Do they
have enough money to buy the bicycle?
Figure 4.4.10
Skill-line
Summing whole numbers

Grade 5
Pupil can sum numbers up to 10 000, with and without regrouping
16. 5 500

17.
6 040

18.
4 720

2 600


505


3 470

1 050


78


1 624


-----------


---------


---------

-----------


---------


---------
19. A 100 ml bottle can hold about 750 grains of rice. About how many grains of rice
can a 1litre bottle and a 300 ml bottle hold altogether?
Figure 4.4.11
102

Skill-line
Summing whole numbers

Grade 6
Pupil can sum numbers up to 100, 000, with and without regrouping
20. 50 500

21.
56 007

22.
78 531

20 077

5 505


21 469

8 415


38 270


-----------

-----------


-----------


-----------

-----------


-----------




23. John’s father bought a lorry that cost $80 000, but he had to borrow $40 000
from the bank. Each year he must give back $8 000 to the bank. How many
years does it take John’s father to repay the money to the bank?
Figure 4.4.12
Skill-line
Adding decimals



Grade 5
Pupil can sum numbers with 2 decimal places.
1. 56·21


2.
360·04
3.
457·81

2·47



59·85

371·39
-----------



-----------

-----------

-----------



-----------

-----------
4. Add 72.01 and 32.90

Figure 4.4.13
Skill-line
Adding decimals



Grade 6
Pupil can sum numbers with 3 decimal places.
·
5. 41·206


6.
21·006
7.
1·804

320·773



33·040

·006
-----------



18·077

·322

-----------



----------

---------






----------

---------
8. Add 16·32 and 12·013
Figure 4.4.14
103

Skill-line
Adding Fractions



Grade 1
Pupil can add fractions presented pictorially, of 1 whole, 1 and 1
2
4
1.
+
=
2.
+
=
3.
+
=
Figure 4.4.15
Skill-line
Adding Fractions



Grade 2
1
2 1
Pupil can add fractions presented pictorially, of 3 , 3 , 8
4.
+
=
5.
+
=
6.
+
=
Figure 4.4.16
=
Skill-line
Adding Fractions



Grade 5
Pupil can add two fractions with the same 1-digit denominator
1
2
3
2

7.
4 + 4 =
8.
8 + 8
=
9. In a class of pupils no-one is exactly 1·30 metres tall, but one quarter of
the class is shorter than 1·30 metres. What fraction of the class is more
than 1·30 metres tall?
Figure 4.4.17
104



Skill-line
Adding
Fractions
Grade
6

Pupil can add two fractions with the same 2-digit denominator, and, add two fractions
with different 1-digit denominators or 2-digit denominators that are multiples;


13
5
4
7
10.
20 + 20 =

11.
15 + 15

1
2
3
5
12.
3 + 6
=
13.
12 + 6

1
3
14. 16 + 32
=


2
3
15.
Simon spent 5 of his money on a drink and 15 of his money on a
stamp for a letter. What fraction of his money did he spend altogether?


Figure 4.4.18



Skill-line Complete
Statement



Grade 1

Pupil can complete a statement of the type: a + = b, up to 20




1.
5 + = 17

2.
9 + = 20

3. Shaun has 15 marbles in his coat pockets. Eight marbles are in his left
pocket, the rest are in his right pocket. How many marbles in his right
pocket?


Figure 4.4.19



Skill-line Complete
Statement



Grade 2

Pupil can complete a statement of the type: a + + b = c, up to 100




4.
10 + + 25 = 60

5.
11 + + 27 = 90

6. Lulu is making a necklace from small shells and large shells. She needs to
have a total of 80 shells, and has already got the 35 large shells she needs,
but only has 24 of the small shells. How many more small shells does she
need?


Figure 4.4.20


105

The skill-ladder shown in Figure 4.2.7 represents the development of the
use of ‘verbs’ in the Key Strand ‘Grammar’ in a Language course. The
following figures, 4.4.21 to 4.4.26 show the learning outcomes together
with examples of the ‘verbs’ being used as implied by the learning
outcome.


Skill-ladder
Verbs





Grade 1

Pupil uses commonly met verbs with simple forms of past, present and present
continuous, in actions that describe themselves, their family and their immediate
surroundings, in simple sentences.

Example:

1.
The ball is red.
2.
John closed the door
3.
I am singing

Figure 4.4.21


Skill-ladder
Verbs





Grade 2

As for Year 1, and; uses differing commonly met verbs within simple sentences on a
single connected topic. Uses the future form of the verb.

Example:

1.
I brush my teeth, They are clean.
2.
Tom went to the shop. He bought a chocolate.
3.
Father is cooking the food. We are helping him.
4.
She will go to the game. Her friend Ann will play netball.

Figure 4.4.22


Skill-ladder

Verbs





Grade 3

As for Years 1-2, and; uses a range of verb forms when constructing complex
sentences. Writes verb forms in either active or passive voice. Modifies the verb when
constructing negative and interrogative sentences.


Example:

1.
The carpenter is making a chair so that we have enough to sit on.
2.
We caught plenty of fish in the net but some of them were too small.
3.
I will ride my bicycle to the beach and then I will swim with my friend.
4.
Yona spent money on biscuits but I didn’t like the taste of them.
5.
The bus doesn’t go to the cinema, it stops at the bottom of the hill.
6.
Aren’t you coming to the party?
7.
Weren’t the boats moving fast?
8.
“I am making cakes today”.
9.
The cook said she was making cakes today.
10.
It is only Saturday, but don’t you think it seems like Monday?

Figure 4.4.23

106




Skill-ladder
Verbs





Grade 4


As for Years 1-3, and; appropriate use of the conditional verb form in complex sentence
construction


1.
If it rains on Friday my mother will not go to the market.
2.
When the moon is big the tides are very high.


Figure 4.4.24


Skill-ladder
Verbs





Grade 5


As for Years 1-4, and; employs a range of tenses in extended pieces of writing and in
short speeches.


It will be Christmas day next week and I am looking forward to seeing my big sister. If
the aeroplane doesn’t break down she will fly to Tanna on Wednesday. Last week it
didn’t fly because of the bad weather.

Most of the family will be together and I am hoping that everyone will have a good time.
I spoke to my sister on the telephone and she said, “You must meet me at the airport”. I
told my uncle that my sister said we were to meet her at the airport, and he agreed to
bring his truck.


Figure 4.4.25



Skill-ladder
Verbs





Grade 6


As for Years 1-5, and; uses an expanded repertoire of verbs.

I chose a comedy film but that was not what the others wanted. We argued about it for
a long time, until in the end we agreed to go to see the thriller which was on at 2 pm.

We travelled on a bus from the village to town, and we behaved as though it was out
first time! The driver must have thought we were silly, but he said nothing until we were
getting off the bus. “Enjoy your film, I shall be driving the bus this evening, and will
expect a report on the film”.


Figure 4.4.26


107


4.5

Samples from different

courses



This section carries sample materials on skill lines and skill ladders
developed for courses in Language, Mathematics, Social Science and
Science.



4.5.1
Sample Materials for a Language


Course

Course: Language
Key-Strand:

Grammar
Objective:
Recognize and use appropriate letter case, and use
punctuation

The following pages carry examples of :

• A skill-ladder for a set of related learning outcomes

• A table of achievement levels for the learning outcomes forming the
skill-ladder

• A set of questions that reflect the expectation of the learning
outcomes

• A question for the Grade 3 outcome, with a pupil answer at
‘Achievement Level 2’














108


Learning Outcomes in the Skill-ladder







6LG1:As for Grade 5,

and, pupils can use

all the different
Grade 6
punctuation in
dialogues and texts





5LG1: As for Grade 4, and, pupils can
use punctuation in short story writing
Grade 5




4LG1: As for Grade 3, and, and pupils insert

punctuation marks in their appropriate places
Grade 4



3LG1:As for Grade 2, and, pupils recognize (!), (“ … “), (‘), and use

comma and question mark
Grade 3



2LG1: As for Grade 1, and pupils recognize comma, question mark, and are able

to use capital letters and full stops
Grade 2


1LG1: Pupils can identify upper and lower case letters and full stops


Grade 1


Figure 4.5.1








109

Achievement Levels








Achievement
Grade 1
Grade 2
Grade 3
Grade 4
Grade 5
Grade 6
Level




As for Year 3;

As for Year 5; and,

and,
Can use all the

Can recognize
different

and use all the
punctuations in
L4
different
dialogues and texts
punctuation
marks


As for Year 1;
As for Year 2;
Can sometimes As for Year 4;
Can use

and, Can
and,
make mistakes
and,
punctuation marks
L3
recognize
Can recognize
in using
Can use the
accurately and
comma and
(!), (“…”) and (‘) punctuation
punctuation in recognize other
question mark,
and can use
marks.
short stories / punctuations used
and can use
comma and
paragraphs
in dialogues such as
capital letters
question
(:), colon, semi-
and full stops.
marks
colon, etc.

Can identify
Can recognize
Can use
Is uncertain in
Can still make Can use

upper and
upper and
comma and
using the
a few mistakes punctuation marks
L2
lower case
lower letters
question mark punctuation
but occasionally
GRAMMAR
letters and
and question
but can make
marks in
make mistakes
full stop.
mark but
mistakes on
appropriate
sometimes with (!), (“…”) and (‘) places.
mistakes with
commas

Can identify
Can user upper Remains
Can use a few
Remains
Remains uncertain
L1
upper and
case and lower
uncertain
punctuation
uncertain in
about placing the
lower case
case letters but about the use
marks
using the
punctuation in their
but
sometimes can
of commas
correctly.
punctuation in appropriate places.
sometimes
make mistakes
and question
appropriate

with mistakes
marks
places

Can not
Can not
Can not
Can not
Can not use
Can not use
L0
identify upper recognize
recognize (!),
recognize and
punctuation in different

and lower
comma and
(“…”) and (‘)
use any
short stories / punctuations in

case letters
question mark,
and can not
punctuation
paragraphs
dialogues and texts
and full stop.
and can not use use comma
marks
capital letters
and question

and full stops.
marks
Figure 4.5.2

110


Example questions for Learning Outcomes from Grade 1 to Grade 6

Grade 1
Grade 2
Grade 3
Grade 4
Grade 5
Grade 6
1.Pupils circle round
1. Pupils put the
1.Pupils group
Pupils apply
Pupils write their own Pupils rewrite a
appropriate capital letters
correct
words according to
appropriate
short stories using
given dialogue
found in the following
punctuation and
upper and lower
punctuation
appropriate
inserting
group of words
upper and lower
case letters from the learned in Years
punctuation.
appropriate

case letters.
given group of
1-3 in the right

punctuations
(a) Tom, little, bag, come.

words
places
eg.
wherever possible.
(b) dog, Santo, go, high (a) John is a boy



(c) She, to, Suva, like

(eg)

Yesterday after
eg.



school, I went home

2.Pupils sort the following

Jeff, run, come, go,
and found my mother My name is Jane
letters according to upper
(b) Tom has a
Dog, Tim, Fred, can,
lying in bed. She
Can you tell me
and lower case letters.
ruler
walk, Port Vila
called me at the top of your name please
a c G L K S s
a book and a
her voice and asked,
My name is tom
S T v h i H L
pen.●
2.Pupils punctuate
Why are you coming
Who are your
n M Z w

the following
home late?” “I
parents


sentences below
helped Mr. James to
My parents are
3.Sort words with flash


clean our classroom
Mr and Mrs wotu
cards to form sentences

(a) the cat eats a rat
because our room was oh I see
with full stop
(b) come down, Jack
so dirty, mum.”
I know who they
eg.
(c) The baby’s

are

mouth is red.
(note: the bold should
My parents told
I
Like
to
dance
(d) I can run fast,
be in box)
me about them

said Jane.
because they are

my parents best
friends

Figure 4.5.3

111

Example question for the Grade 3 learning outcome, together
with a pupil answer judged to be achievement level 2.

Grade 3 Learning Outcome, Achievement Level 2:


Can use comma and question mark but can make mistakes on (!), (“…”) and (')

Children are asked to punctuate the following sentences, using the
following: (?), (,), (!), (“…”), (').

1. When do you go to school

2. What a beautiful day said James.




3. I haven t done my homework said T



om.

4. My father my sister and I go to church every Sunday.


Student’s answer

1. When do you go to school?
2. “What a beautiful day” said James.
3. I haven’t done my homework, said Tom.
4. My father, my sister and I go to church every Sunday.



4.5.2
Sample Materials for a Mathematics


Course

Course:

Mathematics
Key-Strand:
Numeration
Objective:
Read and write numbers in both words and figures

The following pages carry examples of:

• A skill-ladder for a set of related learning outcomes

• A table of achievement levels for the learning outcomes with Level 3
forming the skill-line

• A set of questions that reflect the expectation of the learning outcomes




112

Learning Outcomes in the Skill-ladder







As for Grade 5; and

Can read and write numbers from 1

million to 1 billion in words and figures
Grade 6
correctly reflecting placement




As for Grade 4; and

Can write numbers from 10,000 to 1,000,000 in
words and figures correctly reflecting placement Grade 5




As for Grade 3; and, Can write numbers from 1,000 to

10,000 in words and figures correctly reflecting
Grade 4
placement



As for Grade 2; and, Can write numbers from 100 to 1,000 in

worlds and figures correctly reflecting placement
Grade 3



As for Grade 1; and, Can recognize and write numbers from 20 to 100

in words and figures correctly reflecting placement
Grade 2


Can write numbers from 1 to 20 in words and figures correctly reflecting

placement
Grade 1



Figure 4.5.4








113

Achievement Levels for the Learning Outcomes from Year 1 to Year 6







Achievement
Grade 1
Grade 2
Grade 3
Grade 4
Grade 5
Grade 6
Level

Can write
As for Grade 1;
As for Grade 2;
As for Grade 3;
As for Grade 4;
As for Grade 5; and

numbers from
and Can
and
and
and
Can read and write

1 to 20 in
recognize and
Can write
Can write numbers Can write
numbers from 1

words and
write numbers
numbers from
from 1,000 to
numbers from
million to 1 billion
L3
figures
from 20 to 100
100 to 1,000 in
10,000 in words
10,000 to
in words and figures
correctly
in words and
worlds and
and figures
1,000,000 in
correctly reflecting
reflecting
figures correctly figures correctly correctly reflecting
words and figures placement
placement
reflecting
reflecting
placement
correctly
placement
placement
reflecting
placement

Can write
Can recognize
Can write
Can write numbers Can write
Can read and write

numbers from
and write
numbers from
from 1,000 to
numbers from
numbers from 1
on
L2
1 to 20 in
numbers from
100 to 1,000 in
10,000 in either
10,000 to
million to 1 billion
rati
either words or
20 to 100 in
either words or
words or figures
1,000,000 in
in either words or
figures
either word or
figures
correctly, but not
either words or
figures, but not both
correctly, but
figures
correctly, but
both
figures correctly,

Nume
not both
correctly, but
not both
but not both

not both

Attempts to
Recognizes and
Struggles to
Can write a few
Can write
Still confuses with
L1
write numbers
writes a few
write numbers
numbers from
numbers from
number placement,
with incorrect
numbers
from 100 to
1,000 to 10,000 in
10,000 to 1
when reading and
spelling and
correctly
1,000 in words
figures with few
million in figures
writing numbers
different
mistakes
with few mistakes from 1 million to 1
position of
billion in words and
digits
figures
L0
Can not write
Can not
Can not write
Can not write
Can not write
Can not read or

numbers from
recognize and
numbers from
numbers from
numbers from
write numbers from
1 to 20 in
write numbers
100 to 1,000 in
1,000 to 10,000 in 10,000 to
1 million to 1 billion
words or
from 20 to 100
words or
words or figures
1,000,000 in
in words or figures
figures
in words or
figures
words or figures

figures

Figure 4.5.5

114

Questions and Students’ Responses
Grade 1 Learning outcome
Question a
Write the following number in words:

1.
11
Likely students’ responses:
L1
leven or elleven or one one (or similar spelling errors)
L3
eleven
Question b.
Write the following number in figures:
1.
Seventeen
Likely students’ responses:
L1
71 or 7 or 1 7
L3
17
Grade 2 Learning Outcome
Question a
Match the numbers in the left column with the correct words in the right
column.

65 •

• Seventy four

47 •

• Sixty five

56 •

• Forty seven

74 •

• Fifty six
Likely students’ responses:
L1

65 •

• Seventy four

47 •

• Sixty five

56 •

• Forty seven

74 •

• Fifty six
L3

65 •

• Seventy four

47 •

• Sixty five

56 •

• Forty seven

74 •

• Fifty six
115

Question b.

Write the following number in words:

1.
61

Likely students’ responses

L1
Sixteen wan or sixtie one or six one (or similar errors)

L3 Sixty


Grade 3 Learning Outcome

Question a

Write the following number in words:

1.
102

Likely students’ responses

L1
one zero two or ten and two (or similar errors)

L3
One hundred and two

Question b

Write the following number in figures

1.
One hundred and two

Likely students’ responses

L1
100 2 or similar errors

L3 102

Grade 4 Learning Outcome

Question a

Write the following number in figures:

1.
Six thousand and twelve



116

Likely students’ responses

L1
6 1,000 12 or 6,00012 (or similar errors)

L3 6,012

Question b

Write the following number in words:

1.
1234

Likely students’ responses

L1
one two three four or twelve thirty four (or similar errors)

L3
One thousand two hundred and thirty-four

Grade 5 Learning Outcome

Question a

Write the following number in figures

1.
One hundred and ninety eight thousand six hundred

Likely students’ responses

L1
100 98000 600 or 1986000 (or similar errors)

L3 198,600


Question b

Write the following number in words:

1.
999,999

Likely students’ responses

L1
Nine nine nine nine nine nine or nine hundred and ninety nine

hundred and nine hundred and ninety nine

L3
Nine hundred and ninety nine thousand nine hundred and ninety
nine



117

Grade 6 Learning Outcome

Question a

Write the following number in figures

1.
One billion three million and one hundred thousand


Likely students’ responses

L1
1,3001000 or similar errors

L3 1,300,100,000

Question b

Write the following number in words:

1.
4,008,705

Likely students’ responses

L1
four zero zero eight seven zero and five (or similar errors)

L3
four million and eight thousand seven hundred and five


Student response for Grade 3 learning outcome

Learning Outcome:

Can write numbers from 100 to 1,000 in words and figures correctly reflecting
placement.

Question:

Write this number in words:


a.
444

Students’ answers:

Level 1
Four four four
Level 3 or 4 Four hundred and forty-four




118

4.5.3
Sample Materials for a Social Science

Course

Course:


Social Science
Key-Strand:
Changes in the Environment
Objective:
Identifies change, and reason for change in a range of
specified environments, and where necessary offers
solutions to resulting problems.


The following pages carry examples of:

• A skill-ladder for a set of related learning outcomes

• A table of achievement levels for the learning outcomes forming the
skill-ladder

• A set of questions that reflect the expectation of the learning outcomes

• A set of pupil answers that reflect the specified achievement level.


119


Learning Outcomes in the Skill-ladder





As for Grade 9, and, Can explain and give at least one

example of how our environment is changing at a local level, Grade 10
and one example of how our environment is changing at the
global level; in each case, can suggest at least 2 solutions to
the problems arising from these changes.



As for Grade 8, and, Can describe and explain 3 ways in which

each of our urban, cultural and political environments are
Grade 9
changing.

As for Grade 7, and, Can describe how 3 different types of natural environment

(tropical rain forest, hot desert, tundra) are changing, and identify at least one way Grade 8
in which human activities are causing these changes in each type.


Can identify 5 different kinds of cultural or natural environment (family, school,

community, islands, and world) and describe at least 2 ways in which each of these has
Grade 7
changes.



Figure 4.5.6












120


Social Science






Achievement
Grade 7
Grade 8
Grade 9
Grade 10
Level

Can identify 5
As for Grade 7, and
As for Grades 7 and 8,
As for Grades 7, 8, 9 and

different kinds of
Can describe how 3
and
Can explain and give at

cultural or natural
different types of
Can describe and
least one example of how

environment (family, natural environment
explain 3 ways in
our environment is

school, community,
(tropical rain forest,
which each of our
changing at a local level,
L3
islands, and world)
hot desert, tundra) are urban, cultural and
and one example of how our
and describe at least changing, and identify
political environments
environment is changing at
2 ways in which
at least one way in
are changing.
the global level; in each
each of these has
which human activities
case, can suggest at least 2
changes.
are causing these
solutions to the problems
changes in each type.
arising from these changes.

Can identify at least
Can describe how 2
Can describe 2 ways in Can explain and given an

4 kinds of
different types of
which each of our
example of either changes

environment and
natural environment
urban, cultural and
in our environment at the
L2
describe at least one
are changing; and for
political environments
local level, or how our
change that has
one of these, identify
are changing, and give
environment is changing at
the Environment
taken place
one way in which
reasons for at least one the global level; can suggest
n
i

human activities are
of these changes in
one solution to the
causing these changes. each.
problems arising from these
g
es

changes.

Can identify 2 or 3
Can describe one way
Can describe at least
Can give an example of a
Chan

kinds of
in which one type of
one way in which each
change in our environment

environment, and
natural environment is of our urban, cultural
at either local or global
L1
can describe at least changing.
and political
level, but cannot explain
one change that has
environments is
this change or give a
taken place in one of
changing but cannot
solution to the problems
these.
explain why.
arising.

Cannot identify any
Cannot describe
Cannot describe or
Cannot identify any change

kind of environment
changes in any type of
explain any change
in our environment at local
L0
or describe any
natural environment,
taking place in our
or global level, nor offer any
change taking place. nor identify human
urban, cultural or
solutions to problems
activities causing these political environment
arising from this change.
changes.
Figure 4.6.7

121

Grade 7 Learning Outcome:

Identify 5 different kinds of cultural or natural environment (family, school,
community, island, and world) and describe at least 2 ways in which each
of these has changed.

Questions:

1. State 5 examples of environments found around you.
2. Which 2 changes have taken place in each of these environments in
the last 10 years

L3 Pupil Answer

1. Family, school, community, island, world

i)
Changes in the family

a) size is reducing
b) single parenting

ii)
Changes in school

a) more schools with big populations
b) less space in schools

iii)
Changes in the community

a) use of new technology
b) new ways of dressing

iv)
Changes in islands

a) pollution of beaches
b) destruction of vegetation

v)
Changes in the world

a) use of computers and machines
b) global warming

Grade 8 Learning Outcome:

Describe how 3 different types of natural environment (tropical rain forest,
hot desert, tundra) are changing and identify at least one way in which
human activities are causing these changes.

Questions:

1. State one way in which 3 different types of natural environment are
changing
2. In the environments identified in Question 1, state one way of how
human activities are causing these changes.



122

L2 Pupil Answer

1. Tropical rain forest disappearing due to logging activities
Hot deserts are increasing due to disappearance of forests

2. Tropical rain forest
Human activity increases rate of cutting forest for money, eg.
logging, farming.

Grade 9 Learning Outcome:

Describe and explain 3 ways in which each of our urban, cultural and

political environments are changing.

Questions:

1. State 3 ways in which the urban, cultural and political
environments are changing
2. Give one example of how these environments are changing.

L3 Pupil Answer

The urban environment is changing because

a) the population is increasing
b) more roads and houses are being built
c) there are problems with litter around the place.

Our culture is changing

a) our costumes are starting to use modern materials
b) we are starting to use new songs in our culture
c) some of the old customs are disappearing

Politics is interesting

a) the politics is trying to be national rather than based on
individual islands or island groups
b) the francophone and Anglophone systems are coming closer
together
c) the politics is giving more concern to Vanuatu’s place in the
Pacific

Grade 10 Learning Outcome:

Can explain and give at least one example of how our environment is
changing at the local level, and one example of how our environment is
changing at the global level; in each case, can suggest at least 2 solutions to

the problems arising from these changes.



123

Questions:

1. Give one example of how the environment is changing at the local
and global level
2. Suggest two solutions to the problems arising from the changes
mentioned in Question 1.

L3 Pupil Answer

1. Increase combustion of fossil fuel (eg. heavy machineries, cars, etc.)
lead to increase air pollution
Increase in air pollution leads to damaging the ozone layer thus
leading to problem of global warming and sea level rise

2. Reduce combustion of fossil fuel; use alternative sources of fuels,
such as renewable resources (eg. solar, etc.)


4.5.4
Sample Materials for a Science

Course


Course:

Science
Key-Strand: Energy
Objective:
Understand the role of the Sun in weather, and as
the ultimate source of energy


The following pages carry examples of :

• A skill-ladder for a set of related learning outcomes

• A table of achievement levels for the learning outcomes forming the
skill-ladder

• A set of pupil answers that reflect the expectation of the learning
outcomes












124


Learning Outcomes in the Skill-ladder







As for Grade 5, and, Can list five renewable

energy sources

Can explain why an energy source is a
Grade 6
renewable energy source




As for Grade 4, and, Can list 7 different forms of energy

Grade 5



As for Grade 3, and, Can explain why we use wood and gas

as fuel, using the word sun in his/her sentence
Grade 4



As for Grade 2, and, Can list 2 uses of the sun’s energy


Grade 3


As for Grade 1, and, Can state the ultimate source of energy


Grade 2

Can observe and state in simply short sentences, what the weather is

Can give simple predictions of what the weather will be like when the sun is bright and when it
Grade 1
is dull

Figure 4.5.8

125

Achievement Levels








Achievement
Grade 1
Grade 2
Grade 3
Grade 4
Grade 5
Grade 6
Level




Can explain
Can list 7
As for Grade 5, and, Can

why we use
different
list five renewable energy

wood and gas
forms of
sources
L3
as fuel, using
energy
Can explain why an
the word sun in
energy source is a
his/her
renewable energy source
sentence

Can observe and
Can state the
Can list 2
Can explain
Can list at
Can take 3 renewable

state in simply
ultimate
uses of the
why we use
least 4
energy sources, and

short sentences,
source of
sun’s energy
either wood or
different
explain why each source

what the weather energy
gas as fuel,
forms of
is a renewable energy

is
using the word
energy
source

sun in his/her
L2
Can give simple
sentence
predictions of
what the weather
Energy
will be like when
the sun is bright
and when it is
dull

Can observe but
Can list some Can list one
Can explain
Can list at
Can list at least 2

confusing
sources of
use of the
why we use
least one from different forms of energy

statements are
energy but
sun’s energy
either wood or
of energy


given
not the sun
gas as a fuel,
Can take 1 renewable


but no
energy source, and
Can make some
reference is
explain why each is a
L1
predictions
made to the
renewable energy source.
sun


Does not observe
Doe not know Can not list
Can not explain Can not list
Can not explain why
L0
or make
the ultimate
any use of the why we use
any form of
certain energy sources

predictions
source of
sun’s energy
wood and gas
energy
are regarded as
energy
as fuel
renewable, nor offer any

examples
Figure 4.6.9

126


Exemplar pupil answers for the learning outcomes

Learning outcome 1LAE1
Grade 1

Pupils are able to observe and state in simple short sentences, what the
weather is.

Exemplar pupil work:
- It is sunny
- It is cloudy
- It is raining
Learning outcome 1LAE2
Grade 1


Pupils are able to give simple predictions of what the weather will be like
when the sun is bright and when it is dull.


Exemplar pupil work:
- When the sun is bright, it will be hot
- When the sun is dull, it will be cooler
- When the sun is dull, it may rain
Learning outcome 2LAE1
Grade 2

Pupils are able to state the ultimate source of energy

Exemplar pupil work:
- The sun gives energy
- All energy comes from the sun
Learning outcome 3LAE1
Grade 3

Pupils are able to list 2 uses of the sun’s energy

Exemplar pupil work:
- The sun keeps us warm
- The sun keeps us healthy
Learning outcome 4LAE1
Grade 4
Achievement Level 3
Pupils are able to explain why we use wood and gas as fuel, using the
word sun in his/her sentence.

Exemplar pupil work:
- Wood is used as fuel because, as a plant it stores energy from the
sun, then when we burn it, it gives us energy.
- Gas is used as fuel, because gas comes from tiny animals that were
buried deep in the earth millions of years ago, and these tiny
animals get their energy from plants, and plants get their energy
from the sun. When we burn the gas, it gives us energy.




127


Learning outcome 4LAE2
Grade 4

Achievement Level 2

Pupils are able to explain why we use either wood or gas as fuel, using the
word sun in his/her sentence.

Exemplar pupil work:
Either
- Wood is used as fuel because, as a plant it stores energy from the
sun, then when we burn it, it gives us energy.
Or
- Gas is used as fuel, because gas comes from tiny animals that were
buried deep in the earth millions of years ago, and these tiny
animals get their energy from plants, and plants get their energy
from the sun. When we burn the gas, it gives us energy.
Learning outcome 5LAE1
Grade 5

Pupils are able to list 7 different forms of energy

Exemplar pupil work:
- The 7 forms of energy are:
(1) Heat energy, (2) Light energy, (3) Sound energy, (4) Stored
energy, (5) Movement energy, (6) Electrical energy, (7) Nuclear
energy
Learning outcome 6LAE1
Grade 6

Pupils are able to list 5 different renewable energy sources

Exemplar pupil work:
- The 5 different renewable energy sources are
(1) Sunlight energy, (2) Wind energy, (3) Wave energy, (4) River
energy, (5) Hot rocks energy
Learning outcome 6LAE2
Grade 6


Pupils are able to explain why an energy source is a renewable energy
source.


Exemplar pupil work:
- Sunlight energy is a renewable energy source, because we cannot
use up the sun’s light
- Wind is a renewable energy source, because we cannot use up the
wind
- Wave is a renewable energy source, because we cannot use up the
waves



128



Chapter Five




5.1 Developing activities that

promote learning



Preparing activities for pupils to do is also part of the planning for the
lesson. It involves the process of designing what pupils will actually do
during the lesson. By pupils doing the activities you will be in a position
to gather the evidence you need about the achievement of your pupils.

The activities you develop for your pupils can be either informal or formal
but they present opportunities for you to collect information so you are
able to gauge whether individual pupils or groups of pupils are actually
learning. At the heart of the activities you develop are learning outcomes.

An important aspect of the various activities is that wherever possible the
pupils are actively involved, not only in completing the activities, but also
in a range of ways that fosters interest in their own progress.

Those ways are listed below, and are to be found woven into the various
activities described later in this chapter.

• Interaction with the teacher during periods of question and answer
exchange
• The process of marking and checking their own work
• The process of marking and checking the work of other pupils
• Following up on teacher marking by eliciting feedback
• Assistance provided to fellow pupils following personal
achievement
• Self evaluation based on the question ‘Am I sure, or, am I
uncertain?’
• Designing activities based on a learning outcome for other pupils
to complete
• Self monitoring along a sequence towards a learning outcome
• Maintaining their own attainment records
• Selecting work that demonstrates success, and building a portfolio

It is hoped that you will be able to use some of the ideas presented here
to develop your own activities for the purpose of helping your pupils to
achieve their learning outcomes.

Essentially the activities are a cross section of styles for collecting
information about pupil performance. You will need to be selective when
choosing a style for a specific purpose. Some styles are clearly more
suited for particular learning outcomes than are other styles.

A development cycle for activities designed to improve teaching and
learning is shown in Figure 5.1.1.


129

When you are considering or dev eloping any activity for your pupils, it
will be useful to cross match the 10 steps shown in the cycle with your
development and use of the activities in the classroom.

Step 10:
If yes – hold for future inclusion in teaching
If no - redesign


Step 2:

Plan an activity

focused on the

learning outcome

Step 1:

Focus on a
Step 3:

specific learning
Teach the
lesson covering

outcome
that learning

outcome



Step 9:
Decide if the task

has helped to
Step 4:

improve teaching
Children do

and learning
the activity





Step 8:
Step 5:

Give children the
Collect
results; and
feedback data

provide feedback




Step 7:
Step 6:

Int
n e
t rpre
rpr t the
t th re
sults
Analyze data

and prepare
par a
a
for feedback
response
spons to im
to i prove

learning




Adapted from: Classroom Assessment Techniques, Angelo and Cross, ISBN 1555425003

Figure 5.1.1

The word “activity” as used in this module refers to those occasions that
have been planned by you for your pupils to carry out in order to obtain
information about the pupils for the purpose of:

-
monitoring their progress in mastering a particular part of the
course,
-
providing feedback to the pupils on their strengths and weaknesses,
-
finding areas of success and weakness in your teaching.


130

Well thought-out activities will share certain common elements, and the
way in which these links to each other describes the ‘structure’ of the
activity.

A suggested sequence for developing the activity is shown in the
structure below (Figure 5.1.2).

A structure for developing what is to be done by the pupils.

A title





which relates to

An isolated course objective


which provides

Specific learning outcomes


that suggest

What pupils are expected to achieve

and specify

The conditions under which the activity is done


A structure for determining level of success

How the pupil performance is to be judged
and

A way of recording pupil achievement


A follow-up using the recorded information about achievement

Feedback to the pupils



and

Feedback to the teacher (yourself)

and possibly

Entry on records of achievement


Figure 5.1.2



Figure 5.1.3 .shows an activity consisting of three questions while Figure
5.1.4
shows a form of a teacher record or data sheet on how each of your
pupils performed in each activity.






131







Grade: 5
Measurement: Area

Name: ……………..

Title: Understand and use the concept of area.

Learning outcome: Calculate the areas of composite shapes



from triangles, squares and rectangles.

You must find the area of Shape 1, Shape 2 and Shape 3.
Write your working out on the dotted lines


Shape 1





Shape 2

12 cm
6× 6 = 36
10 × 5 = 50
6 cm
12× 6 = 72
- - - - - - - - -

- - - - - - - - -
4 × 2½ = 10

6 cm
- - - - - - - - -
14 cm
- - - - - - - - -

6 cm
108 cm2
10 cm 60 cm2

6 cm




5 cm
Shape 3

6 × 4 = 24

2 cm
6 cm

1× 4
=
4

4 cm
1× 4
=
4

32 cm2


2 cm



For the teacher


Shape Tick
Reason for error
1

2

3




Feedback
Record of Achievement







Figure 5.1.3





132





Data Sheet

Subject: Mathematics Level: Grade 5 Date: 14/9/06

Learning outcome: Calculate the areas of composite shapes
from triangles, squares and rectangles

------------------------------------------------------------------------------
22/35 pupils had problems with Shape 3

16/35 pupils had problems with Shape 2

Only 3 pupils had problems with Shape 1

It seems that the triangle formula for area caused difficulty;
many pupils applying base x height as the area.

Revisit this next lesson







Figure 5.1.4

The example work of Mary, Fatu and Tevita, shown in Figure 5.1.5
includes the notes made by the teacher for each pupil.

The checklist shows with a or whether the work was correct, and the
‘Reason for error’ column describes a difficulty.

The ‘Feedback’ box summarizes what needs to be revisited with the pupil.

The ‘Record of Achievement’ box indicates whether the learning outcome
can be ticked off or not on the Record of Achievement for that pupil.

Discussion with Fatu showed that the error in calculation for Shape 3
was a slip-up, as Fatu recognized the source of error immediately. On the
strength of this, the learning outcome was ticked off on the ‘Record of
Achievement’.


133

134


5.2 Formal Classroom Activities




As earlier indicated, activities are either formal or informal. While the
demarcation between activities considered as “formal” from those
considered as “informal” is not clear cut, the length of time that is
required for pupils to complete the activity as. This is indicated by the
clock face at the right-hand-side of the heading.

The function of any activity, whether formal or informal, remains the
same; that being to provide information that can gauge pupil
learning, and for that information to be used to assist pupils with

their learning.

Typically formal activities will occupy the available lesson time, and
therefore constitute the major portion of the lesson plan. Some of the
activities considered as formal are extensions of activities that are
classified as informal, with the extra time allowing for greater coverage.
For example ‘Action Demonstration’ activities where pupils are required to
give a demonstration could not accommodate many pupils ‘demonstrating’
simply because of time constraints. However its longer version called
‘Performance Activities’ will allow for a wider range of activities across
several subjects.

More time also means that additional activity styles can be used, thus
including activities that can be clearly associated with practical and
creative skills.

Another feature of the ‘Formal Activities’ is that each activity would be
developed in line with the ‘Pupil Activity Structure’ described in section
4.1.

The timing of the Formal Activities is important. The activity should be
used;

- as a teaching tool for working towards a particular learning
outcome or set of associated learning outcomes

- as a checking tool that follows very closely after a particular set of
learning outcomes are thought to have been achieved

- as a source of information upon which feedback to pupils can be
based

These activities are not intended to be separated from the moment of
learning by large stretches of time. To do so would mean that the activity
was playing no part in learning, but was being used as an adjudication of
performance for some other purpose.

Some examples of formal activities are outlined.



135




5.2.1 Problem
Solving




One of the types of formal activities you may wish to adopt is that of
problem solving. As a teacher you will have frequently asked pupils to
solve problems of one kind or another. The problems may have had a
mathematical basis, but there may have been others that presented
pupils with a logistical challenge.

For example pupils may have been asked to ‘find something out’, and this
may have required them to answer the question ‘How do I find this
something out?’ As teachers we frequently pay little attention to ‘how the
pupil found something out’ providing that ‘they did find that particular
something out’.

In other words we were less interested in ‘how a problem is solved’, than
in the fact that ‘the problem has been solved’.

It may be worthwhile occasionally encouraging pupils to think about ways
to solve a particular problem, and for that to be the real focus, rather
than the solution that happens to emerge at the end.

By doing this you will be encouraging the development of a skill that is
useful throughout life, and which is not peculiar to a particular course or
subject.

E A good starting point is to present a problem that you know your pupils
can solve. For example you may know that they can add 2-digit whole
numbers of any value.

Presenting them with the addition sum:

57 + 74 will yield a ‘classful’ of 131s.

They may even set the working of the problem out as:




5 7


171 4


---------


1 3 1
---------
It is likely that they are so familiar with this particular problem that they
can almost solve it subconsciously or by rote. But if you ask them to write
down and explain what they were doing, and why, it will encourage
thought about the actual process that goes on when a problem is being
solved.


136

A pupil’s response might go like this:

I looked at the unit’s column and saw a seven and a four. I know that these
add up to eleven, which means I will have a whole ten to carry to the tens
column, leaving a one in the units. So I wrote the 1 in the units, and I
reminded myself of the ten by putting a little one next to the seven. Then I
said to myself seven and one is eight and I have to add five to that eight. I
knew that five and eight is thirteen, but the one here stands for one hundred,
so I wrote the answer one hundred and thirty one.

Figure 5.2.1

Try getting pupils to write down, or to describe orally, exactly how they go
about solving a problem. Each step needs to be clear. The important thing
is that you know that they are capable of solving the problem without too
much difficulty. It does not have to be a mathematics-based problem.


E For example the problem could be:

- A door is locked. You have a bunch of 15 keys, but you do not know
which key opens the door. What is the best way to find the key that
opens the door?
- You are reading a very interesting book. By accident the book closes
and you lose the page that you were reading. What is the best way to
find the same page again?
- You have an atlas and you want to find where Taiwan is. How do you
do this?
- You know that today is Tuesday, 24th January. How can you find out
what day February 17th is?

Encouraging pupils to ask questions of them is the key to problem
solving. If they become familiar with, and develop the technique, it will be
an extra tool that helps them to reach a whole range of learning outcomes
that require understanding, and application.

Here is a problem that the class can first think about, and then actually
E try to see what happens.

Before starting, every pupil must be holding a pen.

1.
Every pupil in the class picks a card from a pile just as you would
select a card from a pack of playing cards. All the cards are blank,
except for one card that has an ‘X’ written on the back.
2.
Every pupil must be secret about whether their card is blank or has
an ‘X’.
3.
-The class then walks around, and at a signal, each pupil shakes
hands with another pupil. The pair of hand shakers look at their
cards. If one of the hand shakers has a card with an ‘X’, then the
other pupil must secretly write an ‘X’ on their own card, but every
one pretends to write an X to protect the identity of the real writer.
4.
At a signal the pair splits up and pupils again walk around, and at
a second signal stop and shake hands, but it must be with someone
new. Again everyone looks at their cards, and if one of the hand
shakers has an ‘X’ the partner pupil must secretly write an ‘X’ on
their card, while everyone pretends to write an X.

137

5.
This process continues, under two conditions:

• No-one is allowed to shake hands with the same person twice
• If the pair of hand shakers finds that they both have an ‘X’ they
must both drop out of the game.

Before playing the game, pupils can think about what might happen.
For example;

- how many rounds will the game go on for?
- will there be a ‘winner’ left at the end?
- what would be the effect of not dropping out if both halves of the
pair already have an ‘X’ when they meet?

The next couple of examples present the pupils with information that
they need to organize so that they are able to reach a required answer. In
the two examples, tables have been prepared as a method of organizing
the information.

Three fruits; tomatoes, bananas and apples, are sold at different places,
E the shop, the market and the farm. The price of the fruit is 20 c, 10 c, and
15 c.

The problem is we do not know which fruit costs how much, and we do
not know where to go to buy the fruit. But we do know three things.

1. Four apples cost the same as three tomatoes.
2. The farm sells the most expensive fruit.
3. The shop never sells bananas.

Can you find out where to go to buy each fruit, and how much each fruit
costs?


10 15 20 Market
Shop
Farm
Banana





Apple






Tomato





Market





Shop






Farm







Figure 5.2.2















138

5.2.2 Graphing – Pie and Bar Charts


Making sense of information that is presented graphically is a cross-
curricular skill. Pupils will come across graphs or charts presented as pie
charts and as bar charts through advertising and newspapers.

Graphing may not be specifically mentioned as a learning outcome, but it
may be an assumed skill in a number of courses. A general objective may
refer to “pupils organizing and interpreting data”. This objective can yield
the learning outcomes that;


“pupils can effectively present data in graphical form”

“pupils can interpret data that is presented in graphical form”

The answer to a number of questions will provide indication as to whether
or not pupils have met these learning outcomes.

- Are pupils familiar with the terms ‘pie chart and ‘bar chart’?
- Can pupils recognize a pie chart and a bar chart?
- Can pupils interpret the information in a pie chart or a bar chart?
- Can pupils construct a pie chart or a bar chart?
- Can pupils decide on the most appropriate chart form for a given
set of data?
- Do pupils correctly show all the necessary features in their chart?
- Do pupils recognize that pie charts are suited to data where a
‘whole’ is being divided up?
- Do pupils recognize that bar charts are suited to data that reflects
frequency of either connected or unconnected items?

Examples of data suited to pie chart are;

- a family budget
- world population divided by continent

Examples of data suited to bar chart representation are;

-
a family budget (items connected)
-
number of leaves on different plants (items unconnected)














139



E Pie chart: Monthly family income budget

Cleaning
Transport
10%
10%
Savings
10%
Clothes
10%
Fuel
15%
Food
Entertainment
40%
5%


Figure 5.2.5.

E Bar chart: Number of leaves on different plants


Bar Chart
8
7
6
5
a
v
e
s
4
3
o
. of Le
N 2
1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
plant

Figure 5.2.6

The c a
h rts shown in Figure 5.2.5.and Figure 5.2.6 can be used by
pupils to demonstrate their meeting of the learning outcomes.

Questions based on the data they contain will enable the pupils to
gauge whether or not they feel confident with these representations


E Get the pupils to individually construct two questions about the data
in each chart.

Ask them to answer their own questions.

Mala did this and recorded his work on a sheet as shown in Figure
5.2.7.



140

Pie and Bar Charts

Name ………Mala…………Class…6M………Date…August 2007……

Pie Chart
My Question
My Answer
What does the family spend the
Entertainment
least amount of money on?
If the monthly income is $4,000,
$400
how much do they manage to
save?

Bar Chart
My Question
My Answer
How many plants have more than Three plants
3 leaves?
What is the total number of leaves 10 leaves
on plant 1 and plant 2


Figure 5.2.7

Pie and Bar Charts

Name ………Talei…………Class…6M………Date…August 2007……

Pie Chart
My Question
My Answer
How much money did the family
$1,600
spend on food?
What were the fuels they used?
Kerosene, and wood

Bar Chart
My Question
My Answer
Which was the biggest plant?
Plant 2
Which plants were the same?
Plant 1 and plant 4

Figure 5.2.8

On the basis of this activity, Mala has shown good understanding, but
Talei has not interpreted the data correctly. The questions that Talei
has produced cannot be answered from the data, and therefore the
answers cannot be confirmed by the data.

Mala has reached the learning outcome that “pupils can interpret data
that is presented in graphical form”,
but Talei has not.

There may be other pupils like Talei who need further help. By talking
through the pie and bar charts in Figure 5.2.5 and Figure 5.2.6i, their
understanding might be improved. Using Mala and others who have
been successful to explain to their friends will also be helpful.

If Mala can explain to Talei why his questions were not appropriate, it
will demonstrate a more complete understanding on Mala’s part, and
at the same time help Talei.

141


E Get the class to think of data sources that might be suited to pie
charts and bar charts. Collect these ideas on the blackboard. When a
few ideas for a pie chart and a few ideas for a bar chart have been
collected, get pupils to independently ‘invent’ about six pieces of data,
and then build a pie chart and build a bar chart from those pieces of
data.

Provide pupils with the blanks, such as shown in Figure 5.2.9



Pie Chart





Bar Chart














Figure 5.2.9.

A checklist is a convenient way for pupils to make sure all the
necessary features have been included in their pie or bar chart. Figure
5.2.10
shows a suitable list for this purpose. Pupils should be
encouraged to refer to the checklist both during construction of the
chart, and as a self-check after construction is complete.

Pie Chart Feature
Present
or
A title that summarises the purpose of the chart

Distinct sectors

Sectors labeled with datum name

Sector size compatible with datum size

Data is suited to pie charting


Bar Chart Feature
Present
or
A title that summarizes the purpose of the chart

Both Axes clearly labeled

y-axis clearly graduated

x-axis clearly graduated or labeled

Bar column heights compatible with data

Data is suited to bar charting






Figure 5.2.10


142

Provide the pupils with either a pie chart or a bar chart, and get them
to transform, one into the other. Make sure that the data is
‘transformable’.

E For example the data in Figure 5.2.11, can be used to construct either
a pie chart or a bar chart, and is therefore transformable from one to
the other.

Number of pupils over 130 cm in height
Class
Number of pupils
1 4
2 2
3 7
4 9
5 12
6 16





Figure 5.2.11

Figure 5.2.12 shows a possible response

No. of pupils over 130 cm in height
Class 1
(4)
Class 2
(2)
Class 6
(16)
Class 3
(7)
Class 4
(9)
Class 5
(12)

Figure 5.2.12














143

5.2.3
Calculations
A range of learning outcomes involves some form of calculation. These
outcomes may be related to a mathematics course, but other subjects also
have outcomes that may require pupils to calculate some value.
Calculations vary in the demands they place on pupils, and quite often
the differences are to be found in the way the calculation is presented.
In general, calculations fall into one of four categories, or into a mixture
taken from the four categories.
In the examples that follow ere
th
are four categories, and in each category
there are three examples.
The data used in the three examples shown in the first category is
e
r peated in each of the next thr e
e categories.
Category
Examples
of
1
2
3
calculation
First
Second
Third
Increasing
cognitive
demand
Fourth
Figure 5.2.13
E The first category is pure procedure.
The calculation comprises numbers and symbols, but few words.
For example:
“pupils can add 2-digit numbers”


26
+
12
“pupils can divide any number by ten”

$220 ÷ 10
“pupils can solve simple equations”

y
=
2x + 3
(where x = 1)
Figure 5.2.14
144

E The second category, buries the calculation inside a setting.

For example:

“pupils can add 2-digit numbers when presented in a practical
e
s tting”

• There are twenty six pupils in class 4G and only twelve pupils
in class 4H. How many pupils altogether in classes 4G and 4H?

“pupils can divide by ten when presented in a practical setting”

• The $220 that the 10 girls were given was shared equally
amongst them. How much did each girl get?

“pupils can solve simple equations presented as data in a practical
setting”


• I’ve got two trouser pockets and I have a pen in each pocket. I
also have a shirt with three pens in the pocket. How many pens
have I got?

Figure 5.2.15

E The third category, requires pupils to find the data required for the
calculation.

For example:

“pupils can extract data required for addition”


In a room there are forty six men and twenty four
women. Twenty of the men are less than thirty years old,
and twelve of the women are less than thirty years old.
How many people in the room are over twenty nine years
old?

“pupils can extract data required for division”


I paid for a two thousand eight hundred Vatu air fare
with a five thousand Vatu note. I asked my father if I
could use all the change to buy ten bars of chocolate for
my friends. How much did each bar of chocolate cost?

“pupils can extract data forming the basis for a simple equation”


Yona is four years old and has an older sister Vira. Three
years ago, Vera was twice as old as Yona. How old is
Vera now?


Figure 5.2.16





145



5.2.4 Comprehension
Passage


Activities based on passages of text may be used in a range of subjects.
The objective of the activity will be based upon comprehension of the
writing. Since the comprehension passage could be on any topic, you or
your pupils will choose a passage that links with specific learning
outcomes.

The language level of the passage should match the general language
development of the class it is intended to be used with.

There are a number of decisions that you will make about the handling of
the lesson.

1.
How will the passage be introduced?
2.
Will the passage be read out aloud.
3.
Will you read the passage or will a pupil.
4.
Will the reading be shared between pupils.
5.
Will the passage be read silently by all pupils.
6.
After the passage has been read what then?
7.
Will there be discussion of the content?
8.
Will pupils ask each other questions?
9.
Will you ask questions of the class?
10. Will pupils be writing answers to questions?

Some of these questions will be answered when the learning outcome is
identified.

As an example take these two learning outcomes.
E


“pupils can read and describe the writer’s point of view or bias”

“pupils can read and differentiate between fact and opinion”

You will first need to ensure that pupils understand what is meant by
‘fact’, what is meant by ‘opinion’ and what is meant by ‘bias’.

To check this, ask for examples from pupils. If this is a problem, offer
examples of your own first, checking that pupils understand why the
examples contain fact, opinion or bias.

“I think it will rain tomorrow” is an example of an opinion
“It is raining today” is an example of fact
“I hope it will be dry next week” is an example showing bias

Follow this up with pupils offering their own examples.

When you are happy that the concepts of fact, opinion and bias are
understood, your pupils will be ready to move on to the comprehension
passage.

A passage has been picked by a couple of pupils. They have taken it from
the local newspaper.

146


E An example of a selected passage is shown in Figure 5.2.17.

A possible approach involves first looking at the title of the passage.
Discussing what information is given away by the title.

Do pupils understand the title?
Dose it give a clue to what the passage is about?
Does it suggest where the passage came from, and who wrote it?
Does it suggest a reason why the passage has been written?

Pupils can be encouraged to talk about these questions.

This can be followed by reading the passage. Perhaps it has been decided
that pupils will read the passage themselves, making notes on anything
they do not understand. They can also making note of any word, phrase
or sentence that is evidence of fact, opinion or bias.

Students get the sack over alcohol abuse

By Elenor Waiwo
November 16 2005

Over 10 senior students from Pasifika College had to leave the college a
week earlier before break-up after being found drinking on campus.

The students could have held on to complete the year, given the important
week of their final examinations.
"They must be regretting their actions thinking if only we had not done
such silly thing," a senior teacher said.
The students were caught on the spot as they gathered to drink homebrew
in the dormitory.
A group of five students were said to have been spotted by the college
driver.
The case was placed under the responsibility of the college's deputy
principal.
The senior staff believes only one student knew how to produce alcohol
through fermentation process, but a former student has revealed to Daily
Post it was not the first time students have produced alcohol.
Parents have been warned to take precautionary measures to help their
children.
Teaching staff who are former students have been requested in the past to
help stamp out such practices without success, Daily Post understands.
My advice is students, parents and teachers must work harder to put in
place stronger measurers to stop such behaviour," the former student said.
Many also believe the school needs to be properly fenced.

Figure 5.2.17





Having read the passage, a class discussion can get pupils to throw out
ideas, by giving their selections of words, or phrases that reveal the three
features of the learning outcomes, fact, opinion and bias.

If you believe that your pupils have grasped the concepts of fact, opinion
and bias, the passage can be presented in a way that will provide you with
information about individual pupil grasp.


147

E Figure 5.2.18, splits the passage into sentences, and sometimes into
clauses. The letters F, O and B are used in the right hand column. The
pupil enters the letter to indicate whether they believe the sentence shows
fact, opinion, bias, or a combination of two.

Comprehension

“pupils can read and describe the writer’s point of view or bias”
“pupils can read and differentiate between fact and opinion”


Name ……Kalo………..
Class 6N…..
Date …June 2006………

1. Students get the sack over alcohol abuse
F B

2. Over 10 senior students from Pasifika College had to leave the college
F
a week earlier before break-up after being found drinking on campus.
3. The students could have held on to complete the year,
O
4. given the important week of their final examinations.
B
5. "They must be regretting their actions thinking if only we had not
O B
done such silly thing," a senior teacher said.
6. The students were caught on the spot as they gathered to drink
F
homebrew in the dormitory.
7. A group of five students were said to have been spotted by the college
F?
driver.
8. The case was placed under the responsibility of the college's deputy
F
principal.
9. The senior staff believes only one student knew how to produce
O
alcohol through fermentation process,
10. but a former student has revealed to Daily Post it was not the first
F
time students have produced alcohol.
11. Parents have been warned to take precautionary measures to help
F
their children.
12. Teaching staff who are former students have been requested in the
F? B
past to help stamp out such practices without success, Daily Post
understands.
13. My advice is students, parents and teachers must work harder to
O B
put in place stronger measurers to stop such behaviour," the former
student said.
14. Many also believe the school needs to be properly fenced.
O B

Figure 5.2.18

By coding the sentences or phrases with a number, the pupil responses
can be extended to include a justification of their F, O, B choices. Figure
5.2.19
contains a justification that the teacher helped Kalo to produce.

Kalo says “ I think the title is both fact and bias. I think this because
‘Students get the sack over alcohol abuse’ says the students have been
drinking which is a fact, but using strong words like ‘the sack’ and ‘abuse’
tells us that the writer thinks that what they were doing is wrong, and that
is bias. If the title had said ‘Poor students will miss their exams because they
made the mistake of drinking’
, then the writer would have felt sorry for the
students, but that would still have been bias.”

A title that said “Students found drinking asked to leave school,” would have
been fact with no bias.






Figure 5.2.19




148

Kalo has a good idea of the difference between fact and bias. The same
passage could be used to meet different learning outcomes such as;


“pupils can read a passage of text with understanding”

“pupils can summarize a passage of text”

A set of questions based on a passage can be used to check whether
pupils understand various aspects of the passage. This can be done at
different levels of difficulty. For example Figure 5.2.20 is set at a lower
level than Figure 5.2.21, and Figure 5.2.21 at a lower level than Figure
5.2.22
, yet all sets of questions are based on the passage shown in Figure
5.2.17
.

All pupils can start the comprehension at Level 1, and move to Level 2
and Level 3, as each is completed.

This whole activity is intended to aid pupils in comprehension, Access to
dictionaries, receiving words of guidance from you, and discussion with
their friends can all play a part in improving comprehension.

E
Comprehension Questions

Level 1

Use information from the passage of writing entitled ‘Students get the
sack over alcohol abuse
’ to answer the following questions.

1. Who wrote this passage?

2. Describe, in one sentence, what the passage is about.

3. What do the following words mean?

senior
warned
deputy

4. What do the following phrases mean?

‘they gathered’
‘without success’
‘how to produce’

Figure 5.2.20

















149

E
Comprehension Questions
Level 2
Use information from the passage of writing entitled ‘Students get the
sack over alcohol abuse’ to answer the following questions.
1. Where did this passage of writing come from?
2. Describe, in one sentence, what the passage is about.
3. What do the following words mean?
final

spotted

fenced
4. What do the following phrases mean?
‘before break-up’
‘have held on’
‘former students’
Figure 5.2.21
E
Comprehension Questions
Level 3
Use information from the passage of writing entitled ‘Students get the
sack over alcohol abuse’ to answer the following questions.
1. What type of writing is the passage?
2. Describe, in one sentence, what the passage is about.
3. What do the following words mean?
campus

homebrew

precautionary
4. What do the following phrases mean?
‘regretting their actions’
‘stamp out such practices’
‘stronger measures’
Figure 5.2.22
There is never any upper limit to comprehension. We all meet passages of
text that we find difficult to understand. You will therefore need to decide
whether or not pupils comprehend at an acceptable level. This will relate
to their age and to the guidance provided by the course document for the
subject that is the basis of the comprehension.
It is probable that there will be an element of judgement required on your
part, when you are pitching your activities, and attempting to ascertain if
pupils are progressing towards your interpretation of the learning
outcomes.
150


5.2.5 Making
Hypothesis


When pupils say things like, “I wonder if ……..” or “I think that …..…”,
there is often the seed of a hypothesis lurking there.

For example:

A mother says “Don’t put the washing on the line; it looks as though it is
going to rain”. It is understood – but not spoken – that the clothes will not
dry if it raining.

Her daughter wonders, “will the clothes dry more quickly in the sun or in
the wind?”

This is the seed of a hypothesis. Her daughter’s thought can be slightly
changed into “Clothes dry more quickly on windy days than on sunny
days”. This is a statement. It may be true or it may be false. The
statement can be a ‘hypothesis’ which means that an investigation can be
designed to see if the statement (i.e. the hypothesis) is correct or
incorrect.

Learning outcomes that benefit from making a hypothesis are:

“Pupils can analyze information”
“Pupils can use an experimental approach to a problem”


Getting your pupils to think of questions that puzzle them, or about
which they are curious, is a way of forming hypotheses. The question is
first changed into an assertion, and that assertion is then a hypothesis.


Question:

“Will the clothes dry more quickly in the sun or in
the wind?”

Assertion:

“Clothes dry more quickly on windy days than on
sunny days”

HYPOTHESIS


Figure 5.2.23

Getting pupils to create hypotheses is a useful step in problem solving.
The hypothesis defines what it is that has to be solved.

You may know whether their assertions are valid or invalid, but that does
not matter. For the pupil, the assertion can be a hypothesis.


151



E Examples of pupil-created assertions are given in Figure 5.2.24.


“The quickest way to school from the shop is along the
beach not along the road”

“Hibiscus flowers are more popular to wear in the hair
than frangipani flowers”

“Sound travels further at night than during the day”

“Fresh hens eggs float in rain water”



Figure 5.2.24


Get pupils to discuss these assertions. Get them to think how they can
test each assertion. What conditions must be applied during the testing.

For example with the first assertion in Figure 5.2.24; is the sand dry or
wet? Are people going at the same speed along the road and along the
beach? Are they allowed to run not walk?; Is it quicker because it is
shorter or for some other reason?; how do you know it is quicker?

As each point is raised get the class to think of a way to answer the point.

After the pupils have had practice in addressing the control of conditions
in the Figure 5.2.25 assertions, let the class try to devise a way of
checking the assertion made in Figure 5.2.23 about the drying of clothes.
See how many of the points shown in Figure 5.2.25 are included in their
ideas.


1.
Using two identical pieces of cloth
2.
Selecting a sunny and windy day for testing.
3.
Placing cloths in different positions
4.
One cloth in sunny place with no wind.
5.
One cloth in windy place with no sun.
6.
Both hanging open not crumpled up.
7.
Both hanging for same length of time.

Figure 5.2.25










152



5.2.6 Investigation
Report


Pupils are encouraged to develop enquiring minds. Asking questions is
one way that they satisfy their curiosity. There are occasions when the
questions being asked are an appropriate basis for investigation. This is
how science has developed over the centuries.

The learning outcome that “pupils can carry out an investigation involving
several stages”
, reflects the approach that science encourages.

In section 5.2.5, the concept of a hypothesis was described as a question
that has been converted into an assertion. Questioning the validity of that
assertion forms the basis of a specific scientific investigation.

In section 5.2.5 pupils were asked to think how they would investigate the
hypothesis;

“Clothes dry more quickly on windy days than on sunny days”


Investigations are not confined to the subject we know as science. They
are frequently met in mathematics and in the social sciences. In science,
investigations are usually called experiments, and involve a practical
aspect.

There are certain steps which are common to all investigations;

- a statement saying what is to be investigated (often as a hypothesis)
- a description of how the investigation is to proceed
- a list of requirements for the investigation
- a statement of what is to be observed and recorded
- a statement of what can be deduced from the recorded observations
- and finally, a statement about how the deductions relate back to
the purpose of the investigation



















153



These steps are shown in Figure 5.2.26, where a pupil has said what she
E will do to check the hypothesis about drying cloth in the sun and in the
wind.


Hypothesis:

Clothes dry faster in the wind than in the sun

How I will do my investigation:

I will use two tea towels that are exactly the same. I wait for a day
that is sunny and windy. Then I will cover the tea towels with water
in a bucket and leave them for 5 minutes. Then I will hang one
towel on a washing line in the sun but where there is no wind. I will
hang the other one on a washing line in the wind but where there is
no sun. I have to do this to know what the difference is. I will check
them every half hour to see how well they are drying.

What I need:

I need two tea towels exactly the same. I need a bucket with water. I
need washing lines, one in the sun but no wind, and one in the
wind but no sun. I need a clock or watch so that I can know when I
must check the towels.

What I will look for:

Every half hour I will look at the towels. I will decide which of the
towels is drier. I will write down the time and what the towels are
like for dryness. I have made a scale to test the dryness. My scale
is:

1
Very wet, water is dripping to the floor
2
Wet, I can squeeze water out of the towel
3
Very damp, it feels wet on my face
4
Damp, it feels cool on my face
5 Dry

What my results tell me:

I will see which towel reaches number 5 first, and that will help me
to answer my hypothesis.

My conclusion:

I will say whether my hypothesis is correct or not



Figure 5.2.26






154



A few ideas for small investigations:

1.
Do seeds need water to germinate?
2.
Will seeds germinate in a refrigerator?
3.
Do seeds need soil to germinate?
4.
Do iron nails rust quicker than galvanized nails?
5.
How many times in a minute do we breathe when we
are sitting?
6.
Does our breathing rate change when we are exercising?
7.
What is the most common letter used in English?
8.
What is the most common letter used in Bislama?
9.
Can right-handed people use a scissors accurately with
their left hand?
10. What percentage of people in my school (or class) has
earlobes attached?
11. What percentage of pupils in my school (or class) can
roll their tongues?
12. What percentage of pupils in my school (or class) live
more than 2km from school?
13. How many grains in 1kg of rice?
14. How full of sand does an empty ‘soft drink can’ have to
be before it will sink in sea water?
15. How far can a plastic washing-up bottle squirt water?
16. If two friends each toss a 20Vt coin at the same time,
how often will both coins land with the 20Vt face
showing?
17. How far do the pedals of a bicycle move compared to the
distance the bicycle moves?
18. Which is the weakest part of a plastic shopping bag, the
handles or the bottom?
19. Can two identical rubber bands carry more weight than
one on its own?
20. Do the tallest people have the biggest feet?


Figure 5.2.27














155


5.2.7 Performances


The idea of ‘practice’ in order to build competence is well understood in
activities that involve performance. A combination of self appraisal and
guidance from an observer is also a common feature of improving
performance.

The pupil who is long jumping will be keen to know how long the jump is,
but may also make comments such as;

-
“I wasn’t really running fast before the jump”
-
“I was a long way from the take-off board”

These are self appraisals and indicate the pupil is aware of the nature of
faults in the performance. Knowing what the weaknesses are is a
necessary step before improvement.

Other pupils can also play a part in identifying weaknesses. Seeing
weaknesses, and strengths, in others is a form of exemplification.
Discussion that goes on during and immediately after a performance
provides feedback at a moment when it can have the greatest impact.
Encouraging other pupils to observe and comment on performance,
strengthens recognition of the most accomplished technique.

For any particular performance activity a checklist can be prepared that
highlights the important aspects of the performance.

E Taking the example of the long jump:


Checklist – Long Jump

1.
Is the run-up of the correct length?
2.
Do I arrive at the take-off board with my
correct foot?
3.
Am I arriving as close as possible to the
take-off board?
4.
Am I traveling at my top speed when I
arrive at the take-off board?
5.
Is my path through the air high enough?
6.
Are my legs in the correct position for
landing?
Figure 5.2.28

If all pupils are in possession of the long jump checklist, then everyone
knows what the important aspects of the performance are. This principle
applies to any activity built upon learning outcomes.

“pupils recognize the various elements that lead towards an efficient long
jump”
“pupils endeavour to incorporate good technique into their long jumping

efforts”

156



Kalip is the long jumper. Bue and Lam are watching.
Kalip goes through the whole process from lead-up to
jump. Bue thinks that Kalip is going fastest at a point
halfway through the run-up and suggests shortening the
run. Lam agrees, and also notices that Kalip starts the
jump when still a long way from the take-off board. They
all decide that it would be best to shorten the run-up and
see if the take-off speed is improved. If it is then the exact
start of the run-up can be adjusted a little to correct the
take-off point.

Kalip tries the change, and there is an improvement in
the jump.


Figure 5.2.29

The example given in Figure 5.2.29 describes three pupil friends who are;

- in possession of the learning outcomes regarding the activity
- in possession of a checklist that specifies points of good technique
- helping each other to achieve the learning outcomes

By making certain that the pupils are in possession of the learning
outcomes, and in possession of a checklist for those outcomes, the pupils
stand a chance of focusing their own learning.

By encouraging pupils to help each other in their learning endeavours,
focus develops for both the helper and the helped.

The checklist that you give to pupils can be translated into simpler
language if this is thought to be necessary. For example Figure 5.2.30 and
Figure 5.2.31 are checklists for an activity in drama, one is in ‘teacher’
language, the other is in ‘pupil’ language.

Subjects that frequently have physical performance activities include,
physical education, games, drama, dance and music. Practice or rehearsal
is a common feature in all of these. Building check lists for the various
performance activities will help pupils to focus on the various components
that lead to competent performance.














157


A checklist developed for drama might be based on the following example.
E

Check List – Drama (Teacher language)

Participation

1.
Has developed confidence to take on a character

Expression

1.
Speech is clear with good intonation and expression
2.
Facial expressions complement the spoken context
3.
Body actions are in keeping with the context
4.
Body reactions are appropriate to the context

Stagecraft


1.
Stage movement is appropriate and considerate of
other players
2.
Timing as initiator or responder shows good
judgment

Figure 5.2.30


Check List – Drama (Pupil language)

Participation

1. I am confident in pretending to be a character

Expression

1. My speech is clear with good intonation and expression
2. My face expresses what is happening or what I am
saying.
3. My movements support what is happening or what I am
saying
4. My body reacts properly to what is happening

Stagecraft

1. My movement on the stage is what the character should
do, and does not spoil the other actors
2. My timing when I say something or answer someone is
good

Figure 5.2.31








158



5.3 Informal
Activities


As earlier indicated, activities prepared by the teacher can be
characterized as either formal or informal, both of which play a crucial
role in the teaching and learning. While most teachers are familiar with
the formal activities, organized and prepared and included as part of the
lesson plan, informal activities are often spontaneous and may be inside
or outside a lesson. Informal activities may also include those which are
prepared but are of short duration, typically five to ten minutes.

Irrespective of whether they are formal or informal all activities focus on
the same issue that of collecting evidence regarding the achievement of
pupils. One advantage of informal activities is availability of evidence to
provide immediate feedback to pupils or use feedback immediately or at
least as soon as possible after the learning opportunity.

Allowing pupils to remain anonymous is encouraged where you are more
interested in judging the overall achievement of the whole class rather
than the individual pupil, or where you are more interested in
determining whether your lesson has been successful or not. For some
activities pupils are going to be more willing to participate freely if they
know that their contribution will remain anonymous.

As the teacher you will have a great deal of interaction with your pupils
especially inside the classroom as part of a lesson. These interactions
often tend to be informal and spontaneous yet they can provide you with
information about your pupils that relates to the learning outcomes of the
courses that you teach. Something that the pupil says or does that allows
you to infer something about the command they have on the course
objectives and where they stand in relation to the learning outcomes.
These will usually fall into one of two situations;

- indication that the pupil has achieved the learning outcome.
- indication that the pupil has yet to achieve the learning outcome.

There is no reason why information that reaches you in an informal
setting about the pupil cannot be used to benefit the pupil in the
recording of their achievements. Here are some examples;

E Example 1

Tevita is on his way to school and meets you, saying,
“there was something wrong with question three in the
homework last night because a table which is 2 metres
long can’t have an area of 0.1 square metres, it would
be too narrow!!!”

This would indicate that Tevita had worked out that the table would only
be 5 centimetres wide, which is obviously ridiculous for a table.

So Tevita is not only ”able to find the area of a rectangle”, but also “able to
apply the idea of area to everyday circumstances”.


159

Locating the learning outcomes on Tevita’s record of achievement and
ticking them off would be justified.

(I suppose you would need to be sure that Tevita’s dad or elder brother is
not the one who made the discovery; but you could soon find that out
with a couple of searching questions about the table.)

E Example 2


You ask Fatu to go and buy some coconut string to act as a
line to hang some pictures. She says “Well I will need to get –
(counts big steps) – that’s nine steps, I suppose about eight
metres.”


Fatu has shown that she can estimate short distances well, and has
satisfied a learning outcome that requires a pupil to “make reasonable
estimates of the size of a visible distance”,
and also “apply the correct units
to distance”


Again, Fatu deserves to have those learning outcomes placed on her
record.

Of course the reverse is also true. The pupil may say or do something that
tells you that they are not yet ready to have a learning outcome placed on
their record.

E Example 3


Obed is playing with a piece of polystyrene, when he says “I
don’t know how this stuff is supposed to keep things cold.
Have you felt it? It’s warm!!


You overhear Obed saying this and it tells you that Obed does not
understand that the polystyrene is a poor conductor and feels warm
because it is not removing heat from his hand. It also means that he
doesn’t realize that poor conductors are good insulators.

If Obed is not teasing you, it is safe to bet that he still needs greater
understanding of conductors and insulators before you can tick off the
learning outcome, “use appropriately the terms conduction and insulation”.

While in the classroom you may be bombarded with information about
your pupils. Dealing with such information becomes second nature, so
much so that you may not even realize that you are acting upon it. One
important source of such information is teacher observation. This does
not mean that the teacher is required to sit back and watch the pupils,
although there may be times when that is what you do.

Observing your pupils is a dynamic process, with your observation
causing an immediate adjustment to your teaching. Since this is a two
way process, your pupils also make adjustments based on what they
observe in you.


160


5.3.1
Observing your pupils



As indicated in the previous section an important method of obtaining
evidence about pupils’ achievement is through teacher observation.
Teachers can observe their pupils in a number of ways; observing body
language of pupils, observing pupil independently while they are doing the
activity or observing pupil interaction with each other.

Body Language

The body language of pupils is always there in front of you. It is a rich
source of information about pupil interest, participation and can alert you
to moments when they are having difficulty.

Pupils are not alone in exhibiting body language. You will also be giving
out signals while you are teaching. The various signals made through
body language cause shifts in behaviour on the part of the pupils and
yourself.

Since it is likely that you have numerous pupils in the classroom at any
one time, it is unlikely that all the body signals coincide. Some pupils may
be signaling “confusion”, while others may be signaling “understanding”.
A good teacher will notice this conflict, and rather than move on with the
lesson, will pause, and seek to clarify the immediate lesson points in
order to help those signaling confusion.

If signals of confusion remain, you may need to speak privately to such
pupils later, or, you may be able to give a private assignment to those
pupils who have grasped the ideas so far, while you gather together those
for whom further discussion is needed.

Firstly, let’s look at your body language when you are in front of a class.
Any signals that inspire confidence in your leadership, in your subject
competence, in your interest in all pupils, in your organization – these will
all be picked up by your pupils. And of course, if any one of these is not
reassuring, it too will be noticed by the pupils.

Having a clear plan for the lesson will prevent body language that signals
disorganization. If you are fumbling through papers, through drawers, or
asking pupils to remind you of what you were supposed to be doing this
lesson; these are all signals of disorganization.

Thorough preparation of the course material; its objectives for the lesson;
the concepts to be covered; these all need to be at your fingertips. If they
are not, you are in danger of being embarrassed and signaling
incompetence. Hesitancy, stuttering, avoiding questions, bluffing, will all
be signals of incompetence.

When you are the focus of pupil attention, it is important that you share
your attention amongst all the class members. If your eye contact is
restricted to just a few pupils it will send out a message that other pupils

161

are excluded from your interest. This is not the best way to engage pupils
fully into a lesson, and engagement is a necessary platform for learning.
Secondly, what body languages are exhibited by pupils? Body language is
not usually an intentional display, although of course it can be
deliberately used for effect by feigning a signal.

Perhaps in the classroom the most common body signals put out by
pupils are those shown in Figure 5.3.1.


good understanding - direct eye contact, relaxed face, occasional nodding,
failure to understand - direct eye contact, frowning face, eyes screwed up
confusion - heading shaking, frowning
interest

- direct eye contact, leaning forward
boredom

- poor eye contact, vacant staring, fidgeting, yawning
engagement
- eye contact, occasional smile,
enjoyment
- relaxed, keen to communicate, occasional smile,
enthusiasm
- keen to communicate, leaning forward


tiredness
- yawning, eyes closing, slumping
reluctance
- avoiding eye contact, head shaking, head turned away,
g
surprise

- eye brows raising, mouth relaxing,
disbelief

- eyes widening, frowning, mouth relaxing





Figure 5.3.1

Body language varies slightly from person to person, and so knowing the
pupil places a context on the body language being displayed. There is also
variation in body languages from one culture to another. However what is
important is your capacity to recognize the signals, and more importantly
to adjust your communication in a way that improves the learning
platform.

You are controlling the flow of a lesson, and your pupils are providing
you with immediate feedback. It is spontaneous, it is non-verbal, but
it is too valuable to ignore.


If boredom is being signaled, you can be sure precious little learning is
taking place. The body signals of boredom are advising you to change
tack. Break the pattern of the boredom. If necessary desert your lesson
plan. Boredom is often a result of the pupil not being sufficiently engaged.

If confusion is being signaled, you can be sure that there is a need to slow
down, and perhaps, repeat coverage from a new angle.

Independent observation

A second setting for observation exists when pupils are independently
engaged in some activity. An activity may be relatively sedentary such as
reading, or may be dynamic such as in a field trip, practical task, or a
performance of some sort. The observations might be scheduled as part of
the process of teaching, or may be unscheduled and spontaneous
depending upon circumstances that arise in the classroom.

The teacher’s observation can be organized and schedule as in a pupil
exhibiting a performance. This might be very brief lasting only a few
seconds, or, might be extended over several minutes. The pupil knows

162

that the observation is taking place, and that the quality of the
performance is open to comment.

A pupil practicing the long jump for example will expect to receive not
only feedback on the length of the jump, but also on the strength and
weakness of the technique. The length of the run up, the take-off point,
the body position through the air. These will all be points that the teacher
observes in order to be able to provide feedback. Without the aid of a
recording device, the observation will be over within seconds, and the
feedback will be immediate (although the feedback points might be written
down).

Performing a dance may take 2 or 3 minutes, and the teacher will again
be basing feedback advice on observations. With longer activities such as
dance, a checklist will help the teacher to focus observations on a range of
dance features that learning outcomes require.

In contrast to organized observations, teachers also carry out unorganized
observations. Although you might be providing direction for the pupils in
the activity, there will be long periods when pupils are organizing
themselves. It is when the class is independently active, and you are freed
up to be available to individuals, that observations at that time become
important.

Watching the pupils will reveal those who are having difficulty getting
started, ignoring safety advice, are heading in the wrong direction, and,
will also reveal those that are settling nicely to the task at hand.

In this setting you will be constantly on the move, from one pupil to
another, casually encouraging and complimenting, until you have a
reason to approach a specific pupil, based on your observation that
guidance is required.

A teacher that “lets them get on with it” is passing up the opportunity to
assist, when observation indicates that help would get a pupil back on
track. When pupils are working on their own, your time is freed up to
provide individual guidance. This should not be a time for teacher escape!

Observing pupil interaction

There will be times when you have pupils in small groups for various
activities designed to meet particular learning outcomes. Activities of this
type are ideal for encouraging qualities such as co-operation, support,
leadership, organization and others.

But one of the problems of group activities is that it may yield an end
product with no clear indication of individual contributions of members of
the group.

Being conscious of this potential difficulty with group activity will at least
prepare you for the need to use observation as one way to gauge
individual pupil contribution within the group. These observations can
then be supported by other ways of gathering information about the grasp
of individual group members, such as, oral questioning and individual
pupil reporting.

163


For certain types of group activity such as drama performance, the use of
observation is explicit. Devising a Group Work Data Collection Sheet
will allow you to document your observations as part of the overall record
of the group work. This becomes more important if the group work
extends over several lessons or over several days.

An example of a Group Work Data Collection Sheet is shown in Figure
5.3.2
and Figure 5.3.3.

Group Work Data Collection Sheet

Class
…………..
Date
…………..

Activity …………………………………………………………….

Learning outcomes …….…………………………………………......
…………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………….

Group members
……………………………………………………

Observations:

Feedback:







Figure 5.3.2


We have already acknowledged that pupils will not all progress at the
same rate. Some will signal understanding sooner than others. Your
observations, together with other information gathering techniques, will
tell you who is currently grasping the work and who is not. A useful ploy
is to pair pupils, one who understands with one who is having difficulty.
The one who understands is encouraged to help the other. This will
consolidate understanding for the helper, and will provide individual
attention for the one in need of help. This device also involves the pupils
striving to achieve the outcome without your involvement as the teacher.


















164




Group Work Data Collection Sheet

Class:
…5B………..
Date
…20

29
April…….

Activity
: To map the distribution of pupil homes, and then record travel


distances from home to school……………………………….

Learning outcomes: 1. “Pupils able to map information relating to the geography of
their town”.
2.“Pupils able to record data and make statements showing
interpretation of the data”

Group members:
Willie
Mike
Paul
John…

Observations:
Willie appeared to be making most of the decisions on how to go about the work.
He has collected a lot of data but it is not well organized. His mapping of the location
of pupil homes is not very neat but it is all there. Interpretation comments are
sensible.

Mike contributed well to the planning, and it is his suggestions that Willie pushed.
Mike designed the way to collect the data, and the others used this. Not a lot of data
collected, but it was pooled with the others. Very nice mapping. The interpretation was
a bit weak, which was surprising as he used the idea of grouping data.

Paul has been very quiet throughout, and had trouble collecting data because of
shyness. He has tended to copy what the others have done. Since the interpretation of
data was done individually Paul seemed lost and only repeated the data instead of
interpreting it.

John was really keen to start with, but became a bit quiet when Willie started to make
decisions. He presented his data very well, both by map and by table. His oral
presentation of his interpretation was good, and he even mentioned a way that the
data collection could be improved.

Feedback
Have already gone over the good points with each pupil.
Willie and John have reached both learning outcomes
Mael has reached the mapping outcome but not completed the interpretation part of
the second outcome.
Bule needs more encouragement if he is to reach these outcomes.






Figure 5.3.3.















165

5.3.2 Questioning


Posing questions is an integral part of teaching as well as learning. It is a
way of engaging pupils and teachers in conversation about topics
pertinent to the course. And it is a skill that allows you to gauge the level
of learning.

You may decide to open your lesson with a “give away” question. A
question that you are pretty sure all pupils will be able to answer. By
doing this you will relax pupils who would otherwise worry about the
answer they give. So for example if you are teaching a topic on
“classification”;

E You might hold up a plant and ask, “Is this an animal?” Almost certainly the
class will respond in unison, “No!”, or perhaps “Don’t be silly!”

You might follow this up with “Is it alive?” This time you may get fewer
replies.

“So why do you say it is not an animal?” and “What makes you think it is
alive?”



By this stage pupils may be talking to each other, and you can channel
their thoughts into making decisions based on reasons.

This is soft questioning where answers are volunteered, and successive
questions develop in response to these answers.

Alternatively you may pose a question that is more thought provoking,
and requires time for pupils to plan their response. Asking for volunteer
answers too early will mean that only the pupils arriving at an answer
quickly will be heard. This has two drawbacks. Firstly, it will be the same
few pupils who are answering the questions. Secondly, the other pupils
who had been working towards an answer may actually stop thinking
about the question, because the answer has already been given.

If you are not aware of this, your classroom will divide into those pupils
who answer and those who do not. The result will be that the quicker
pupils profit from the questioning, while the slower pupils may actually
suffer from the process.

Often teacher’s questions are aimed at specific pupils. Whenever you do
this you are putting the pupil “on the spot”. For this reason sensitivity
needs to be used. Never ask a pupil a question that you know they
cannot answer.
There is nothing to be gained and there may be a lot to
lose. Avoid embarrassing the pupil.

This means that questions should be pitched so that they are within the
grasp of the pupil. This does not mean that you know the pupil can
answer the question, but rather that an attempt can be expected. Asking
a further question or questions based on the pupil’s first response can

166

guide the pupil to a more complete answer. It is better that the pupil feels
successful, than be left feeling defeated.

In conjunction with the careful pitching of questions to pupils, it is wise to
make sure that questioning is well distributed throughout the classroom.
If pupils see that questioning is restricted to a particular area of seating,
then shyer or less certain pupils will try to put themselves outside the
target area.

If you happen to hit the situation where a pupil simply cannot begin to
answer the question, the situation can be defused by following up with a
general enquiry such as;

“How many of you are also uncertain about this question?”

Questions should be clear and concise and avoid asking several questions
as though it is a single question.

Just as you will use questions as a way of getting pupils to think, and
also to determine what they know and understand, so pupils will use
questions to clarify points about which they are uncertain. There are
several settings in which pupils can express their questions.

Whether or not pupils are prepared to interrupt a lesson with a question,
will depend upon the relationship which exists between you and the
pupils, and what guidelines have been established for classroom
behaviour.

If you have indicated that you are happy to respond to questions indicated
by a hand in the air, then pupils will become used to that.

You may also interrupt yourself when the body language of one or more
pupils indicates confusion or a problem in understanding. In this case the
interruption is a response to the body language, and the interruption
quickly translates into an invitation to the pupil to ask a question. For
example;

E
You are having a lesson on gender and notice that Peta suddenly lifts her head
with a frown on her face when you say;

“A waitress is a woman, but we do not know if a doctor is a man or a woman”

Noticing the frown on Peta’s face you say; “Peta, are you happy with that?”

Peta responds with, “When you said doctor, I thought of a man”

You respond with; Who else thought of a man when I said doctor?”

A few pupils raise their hands. You then ask;

“Do any of you know a doctor who is a woman?”

David says; “My auntie is a doctor”

And you say; “And what about auntie, does it have a gender?!”
Figure 5.3.4


167

The learning outcome “that pupils recognize gender” is being worked
towards by the question and answer process.

Typically your lesson will be made up of many small sections that are
linked or woven together. There will be natural breaks between these
pieces that perhaps coincide with a change of concept. Before leaving the
first concept you may wish to allow time for pupils to ask questions in
order to clarify points. If you have a lesson with no breaks, then it
becomes a boring lecture, not the best way to organize a lesson for school
pupils.

The more often you invite pupils to ask questions, or to make statements,
the more likely they are to become involved in the lesson. One pupil
question may lead to other questions from other pupils and then possibly
on to pupil-led discussion. In such setting the pupil ‘becomes the
teacher’. Such opportunity arises when pupils have been asked to become
“experts” on some topic.

Imagine giving pupils a week to find out what they can about a topic such
as; growing a vegetable, maintaining a bicycle, where money comes from.

As part of the follow up, the pupil is asked to give a short talk (2-3
minute) about the topic to the rest of the class. Certain class members (3
or 4) are asked to note down questions that they wish to ask the speaker
at the end of the talk. Several lessons may be needed to allow all the
pupils to give their talk.

Hopefully both sides benefit. The speaker has;

- become informed on a particular topic
- gathered information from a variety of sources
- communicated ideas to others
- demonstrated that ideas can be clarified

The pupils asking the questions have;

- listened and acquired information
- framed questions to find out more
- communicated the question to someone else

Since the whole of this process is pretty much under the pupils’ control,
you are freed up to make observations about individuals that relate to a
possible range of learning outcomes.

Here we have an opportunity for you to gather data that relates to the
state of learning exhibited by the pupils. A device for gathering this data
could be a Data Collection Sheet that allows you to record your
observations.

A sample Data Collection Sheet is given in Figure 5.3.5.






168


E
Data Collection Sheet for Topic Talk

Class:
…6P…………..
Date: 13/07/06

Topic: Collecting Stamps

Learning outcomes



Pupils are able to gather information from new sources


Pupils are able to communicate ideas and information to others


Pupils are able to listen and respond to questions


Pupils are able to frame and ask questions

Speaker Sisi


She had found a couple of books on stamp collecting from the
library, and used information from them. She also found out that
stamps in this country have lots of different values and designs.
She went to the place that sells stamps and looked at stamps that
had been used in previous years. Although she was nervous she
managed to give lots of information and was interesting. She was
asked three questions and was able to answer two. I liked the way
she said what she needed to do to answer the third question.

Questioners


Shaun asked, “why people collect stamps?”. It was a good question
because Sisi had not mentioned any reason; she had simply said
that people do collect stamps.


Lam asked,” what was the use of a $10 stamp when it only costs
$2 to send a letter”. A good question because not it was not
explained in the talk.


Boe asked “Who makes the stamp?”. Sisi did not know but said she
could find out.

Feedback


All of the pupils achieved the outcomes and were entered on their
Records of Achievement


Figure 5.3.5


When doing an activity
Ask yourselves

What am I aiming for in my answer?
What do I think are the good parts to my answer?
Which bits don’t look very good?
What’s the best way to improve the weak bits?
How do I know when my answer is good?

Figure 5.3.6

169




Chapter Six


6.1 Monitoring achievements



How often do your pupils ask you, “How am I doing?” Perhaps they do
occasionally. How often do your pupils ask themselves, “How am I
doing?” You may not know the answer to this. You may not know because
you have not enquired of them. It may be a question that you have not
expected them to ask of themselves. But it is a question that pupils will
need to ask of themselves if they are to be ‘active learners’ as opposed to
‘passive learners’.

This question, together with others has the potential for changing pupils
from being individuals that are regularly fed, into individuals that can
feed themselves.

• What am I aiming for?
• How am I doing?
• What am I good at?
• What do I need to improve?
• How can I best get there?
• How will I know when my work is good?

Encouraging pupils to think about these questions on a regular basis is
one way of engaging the pupils in changes that can have an influence on
the rate of their progress.

If pupils simply wait for adjudication at the end of the term or at the end
of the year then the level of achievement will reflect the passive
engagement of the previous months. If on the other hand pupils can be
encouraged to think about their progress an active engagement can
develop and this may be reflected in higher levels of achievement.

So how can you foster a classroom environment in which pupils see
themselves as active learners?

One way is to devise activities that would allow both you and your pupils
to monitor their progress. An example is given;

E Pupils are asked to answer the main question “Why is the Marshall
Islands described as ‘A Nation’?”

This question comes up in a course that Peter is following, where the
following learning outcomes are mentioned;

“pupils understand the features that build a nation”
“pupils understand and respect traditional custom”
“pupils understand specific aspects of the geography of the country”


170

Pupils have to seek answers to the following check questions as they
develop their answer to the main question.

• What am I aiming for in my answer?
• What do I think are the good parts to my answer?
• Which bits don’t look very good?
• What’s the best way to improve the weak bits?
• How do I know when my answer is good?

The activity starts off with a class discussion during which the pupils
arrive at the ‘aspects’ that will be used to judge whether the answer is a
good one or not. They decide that a good answer must have four main
themes; geography, customs, language and other important shared
things.

The result of this discussion is that all pupils have an idea of “what I am
aiming for in my answer”


Peter then uses the guidance to the ‘aspects’ decide his answer to the
main question. His answer is found in Figure 6.1.1.

Peter’s first answer.

Marshall Islands is made up of several islands. Some of the islands have
big distances between them. The people who live on the islands look like

each other. A person who lives in one island looks like a person from
another island. You cannot tell which island they come from by looking at

them.

Another thing is the customs. Most of the customs are the same on all the

islands.

I have to say something about languages. The language on the islands is
the same. So it doesn’t matter which island you are from because
everyone speaks the same language. So that helps us be a nation.

Another thing is we all eat the same sort of food that we grow on the

island, and even the food that Marshall Islands imports.

Another thing is we all use the same money, that is, the US dollar.


Figure 6.1.1

Peter then had to decide “what do I think are the best bits to my
answer”.

Peter decided to show his answer to Mary. Mary thought that the
‘geography’ and the ‘language’ bits were the best. Peter thought the same.

Then for “which bits don’t look very good” Mary said “you can say more
about custom. You haven’t really given any example”, and “you have
started two sentences off with the same words; it doesn’t sound good.”

Peter then said “And for the other important things I can say “parliament”
and the “church”, they’re not customs are they?” This will help with the
question “what’s the best way to improve the weak bits?”


171

Peter’s second answer.

Marshall Islands is made up of several islands. Some of the islands have
big distances between them. The people who live on the islands look like
each other. A person who lives in one island looks like a person from

another island. You cannot tell which island they come from by looking at
them.

Another thing is the customs. Most of the customs are the same on all the
islands. So that makes us be together like in the nation.

I have to say something about language. The language on the islands is

the same. So it doesn’t matter which island you are from because
everyone speaks the same language. So that helps us be a nation.

Another thing is we all eat the same sort of food that we grow on the
island, and even the food that Marshall Islands imports.

Another thing is that we all use the same money, that is, the US dollar.

Every island has its own people in the parliament. This is the parliament
of the Marshall Islands, and other countries don’t have people in our
parliament.

I’m not sure about the church but I think we have our own church, but we

are Christians like lots of other places.

Figure 6.1.2

Peter showed the second version of the answer to Mary. Mary thinks it is
better now. “So is it good”, asks Peter? Mary is not sure. Peter is
wondering “how do I know if my answer is good?”

They both decide to ask the teacher for guidance.

The teacher reads Peter’s work, and says; “Well done Peter, this is looking
good. Did you ask yourself each of the 5 check questions?” Peter replies
“Yes, but I am still not sure if my answer is good now.”

The teacher responds with “You have some good points for each of the
four aspects that we agreed on. So I think you have done well in the short
time you had”. Peter says “I could have put more into it if I had more time
because I could go to the library for some help”.

The teacher says, “Look at this table. It is used to tell us if you have a
good answer. The table says you must have two good points for each of
the four aspects we agreed on”.

Peter reads the table and sees he only has one point for geography and
only has one point for language. “I need another point for geography and
language! You should have let us have this at the beginning!!”

The teacher says “Quite right. From now on I will make sure you do. In
fact we can make the tables together before we start, just like we chose
the ‘aspects’”







172

Aspect
Achievement Level
Geography:
Level 2
2 valid points
Selects and describes
Level 1
1 valid point
points that support the idea of a
nation
Level 0
0 valid point
Customs:
Level 2
2 valid points
Level 1
1 valid point
Selects and describes customs
peculiar to the nation
Level 0
0 valid point
Language:
Level 2
2 valid point
Level 1
1 valid point
Describes the support language
gives to the idea of a nation
Level 0
0 valid point
Other important shared things:
Level 2
2 valid points
Describes other important shared
Level 1
1 valid point
things
Level 0
0 valid points
Figure 6.1.3
Peter went away and thought about another point for geography and for
language. In order to consolidate the idea of ‘self-questioning’ by the
pupils you could have a classroom poster that boldly presents the five
questions mentioned earlier in this section.
Are you learning?
Ask yourselves
What am I aiming for?
How am I doing?
What am I good at?
What do I need to improve?
How can I best get there?
How will I know when my work is good?
Figure 6.1.4
173

6.2 Linking Achievements to


Learning Outcomes


One of the key steps in trying to monitor pupil progress involves linking
the achievement of pupils to the learning outcome. The figures shown in
section 4.4 exemplify the linking up of pupil achievements to learning
outcomes in two different ways.

The first is where a question is structured so that the correct answer that
a pupil produces demonstrates the full achievement of a specific learning
outcome.

The second is where an exemplar piece of pupil work demonstrates the
expectation implied by a specific level of achievement of the learning
outcome.

If we are to be sure about the quality of our monitoring of pupil
progress from one year to the next it is necessary to have clearly
developed skill lines and skill ladders in the form of learning

outcomes. Once these are in place it should be possible to see
exactly where a pupil lies in terms of skill development.

It is important that pupils can access the skill-lines and skill-ladders in
the same way that it is important that pupils can access individual
learning outcomes. They need to see where they have been, where they
are now, and where they are going.

Bear in mind that the skill-lines and skill-ladders are long term
representations of skill development, as they represent curriculum
expectations at successive years. The question then arises, how can
pupil progress towards a single learning outcome be monitored?




Learning Outcomes

Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade
Skill-line

1

2

3

4

5

6






Achievement











Levels within

L3
L3

L3
L3
the learning
L2
L2
L2
L2
L2
L2
outcomes
L1
L1
L1
L1
L1
L1
L0
L0
L0
L0
L0
L0

Figure 6.2.1
Figure 6.2.1 represents a skill-line made up of skill-related learning
outcomes appearing in the curriculum covering Grade 1 to Grade 6. For

174

each learning outcome a set of achievement levels has been developed.
For example the Grade 1 learning outcome has three levels shown as L0,
L1 and L2, where L2 represents the highest achievement level, and
therefore represents full achievement of that learning outcome.
The number of achievement levels will depend on the number of differing
achievement level statements sensible to construct. The number of
achievement level statements on the other hand depends on how many
factors within the learning outcome that you want to monitor.
As an example take the learning outcome for punctuation as indicated by
the Grade 1 curriculum.
Pupils use capital letters and full stops in short simple sentences”.
Skill-line

e
L r
a n n
i
g Outcomes
Punctuation
Grade 1
Achievement
L2 Always uses capital letters and full stops correctly
Levels within the
in short simple sentences
learning outcome
L1 Uses capital letters and/or full stops correctly but
occasionally makes errors
L0 Is not yet using capital letters or full stops correctly
Figure 6.2.2
In section 6.2 (achievement levels) the concept of building achievement
levels was described. For a single learning outcome there may be up to
four or five levels that can be identified as leading towards the overall
achievement of that learning outcome. Short term monitoring of pupil
progress, that goes hand-in-hand with the daily lessons, makes use of the
description provided by each of these levels in order to decide precisely
what aspect of the learning outcome a particular pupil needs to improve
upon.
Just as it is important for pupils to have an awareness of, and access to,
skill-lines and skill-ladders, they also need to have access to the more
immediate statements that describe the achievement levels within a single
learning outcome.
Figure 6.2.3 is the same as Figure 6.2.2, but the language used to describe
the achievement levels is more appropriate for your pupils to understand.
Involving the pupils in constructing achievement level statements in their
own words is one way of consolidating the idea of “What I need to do” to
improve.
175

Skill-line

e
L a n
r i
g
n Outcomes
Punctuation
Grade 1
Which level are
L2 You use full stops and capital letters in the right
you?
way.
L1 You are still forgetting your capitals and full stops
sometimes; and sometimes you are wrong.
L0 You are not using capital letters or full stops
Figure 6.2.3
With Literacy and Numeracy being such fundamental tools for learning in
all other areas of the curriculum, your teaching of these subjects needs to
be flexible enough to allow individual pupils to develop at the fastest rate
that each is capable of handling. Inevitably this will mean that pupils in
the same class can be at differing achievement levels for a given learning
outcome, and indeed may be at differing positions along a skill-line or up
a skill-ladder. For your teaching to be effective for all pupils it will be
necessary for you to organize your class in such a way that you are able
to deal with pupils so that their specific needs are catered for.
This may involve small group work and in some cases individual help, to
ensure that pupils do not get left so far behind that they are no longer
profiting from their presence in your classroom.
This is always a difficult situation for the teacher because slowing the
overall pace of the teaching has the potential to disadvantage the more
able pupils. The teachers need to be fully aware of the ability range within
pupils in the class and take that into consideration when planning the
lesson. A ‘one plan fits all’ would certainly not be the most appropriate
and successful way of teaching a highly heterogonous class with pupils of
different ability.
Preparation for Monitoring - Check Questions
Question 1
.
Have you got established skill-lines and skill-ladders for the Key
Strand or sub-strand that you are teaching? And have you got
achievement level statements for each of the learning outcomes?
If ‘Yes’ proceed to Question 2.
If ‘No’ proceed as below.
From the course document identify and extract all the objectives that are
linked to the same skills but that are recommended to be taught at
different years.
Identify the learning outcomes that reflect the specific course objectives.
From the learning outcomes construct either a skill-line or a skill-ladder.
176

For each learning outcome in a particular skill-line or skill-ladder develop
statements that describe levels of achievement towards the learning
outcome.

Question 2.

Have you shown the skill-line or skill-ladder to your pupils? Have
you discussed the achievement levels for the particular learning
outcome that they are working towards? If pupils see the

achievement levels, it helps them to prepare themselves for the
learning
.

If ‘Yes’ proceed to Question 3.

If ‘No’ proceed as below.

Show the skill-line or skill-ladder to your pupils. Discuss with them what
each step represents in terms of learning outcomes. Ask them to decide
which learning outcome they are currently striving towards. Show the
pupils the achievement level statements for that learning outcome. If none
exist, spend some time with the pupils, creating achievement level
statements in language that they understand. Show the pupils questions
or pieces of pupil work that exemplify the achievement levels. Ask each
pupil to decide at what level they feel they currently stand. Ask them to
think about the three possibilities of;

- where they have been
- where they are now
- where they are next going

Question 3.

Do you know at which point on a skill-line or skill-ladder your
pupils lie? And do you know at which achievement level each of
your pupils lies for a given learning outcome?


If ‘Yes’ proceed to Question 4.

If ‘No’, proceed as below.

Devise questions that reflect the learning outcome for each point on the
skill-line, or for each step on the skill-ladder.

Ask each pupil to answer the questions, starting at the first point on the
skill-line, or at the first step on the skill-ladder.

Each pupil hands in their responses to the questions.

The position at which the pupil lies on the skill-line or skill-ladder is given
by the highest level correct response. This means that the answer at the
next point or at the next level was incorrect or inadequate, and does not
exhibit the expectation of that learning outcome.

This identifies the learning outcome that a pupil is working towards. The
answer that the pupil provides to the question will show the achievement
level for that pupil in that learning outcome. Discuss the missed learning
outcome with each pupil. Compare their answer with the achievement

177

level statements. Get the pupil to recognize what they need to do in order
to move to the next achievement level. When the pupil feels ready, provide
a second chance question for the learning outcome.

Question 4.

Have you recorded the current position of each pupil along the skill-
line or up the skill-ladder? And have you recorded the achievement
level at which they currently lie for a particular learning outcome?


If ‘Yes’, then you are in a strong position to take pupils to the next step in
their learning.

If ‘No’, then proceed as below.

The single Key Strand tables shown in Figure 4.2.4 and Figure 4.2.6
provide a guiding structure for a progress record or for a record of
achievement. Each cell along a row represents a learning outcome lying in
a skill-line or on a skill-ladder.

By shading in a whole cell or a portion of the cell in the row representing
the skill-line or skill-ladder, you can maintain a visual record of the
progress being made by each pupil.

Examples of the modified Key Strand tables are shown in Figure 6.2.1 and
Figure 6.2.2.




178

6.3 Providing Feedback


Feedback is the process whereby information gathered during the teaching
and learning is made available to both the teacher and the pupil. The main
purpose is to find out whether pupils have achieved the learning outcomes.
If not, what are the main areas of weaknesses and strengths of each pupil?
Teachers also make use of the process to find out how to better their
teaching, what extra assistance does each pupil need.

As a teacher, you are involved in feedback both as a receiver of the
information and as a producer. In the classroom, you receive feedback from
your pupils, and your pupils receive feedback from you. The
communications that go on between you and your pupils are heavily
loaded with feedback.




Pupil ask
question


Teacher gauges
Feedback corrects
learning
Learning deficiency

Teacher responds
to question


Figure 6.3.1


Studies have shown that quality and timely feedback is an effective way of
improving the level of achievement of pupils, and is becoming an important
part of the teaching and learning process. Since feedback is so much part
of teaching as well as learning, every opportunity for providing feedback
should be taken as an opportunity to improve learning. While the impact of
feedback is not guaranteed, it will undoubtedly improve learning if you
have in mind, and deliberately aim for, improvement in learning.




179


For example;

John has completed a calculation. You assess his work and find that there
E were some faults and errors. The left hand box shows one way of providing
John with feedback. The right hand box shows a different way of providing
the feedback.



It looks as though you have added the top

and bottom of the fractions wrongly




1
3
5
1
2

+ = because =
4
8
8
4
8


X

1
3
4

You have said
+
=
. You have

4
8
12
simply added the two numbers at the top
and the two numbers at the bottom.

Can you see your mistake?
Figure 6.3.2

Beatrice

writes a paragraph on Island Countries in the Pacific. The left
E hand box shows one way of providing Beatrice with feedback. The right
hand box shows a different way of providing the feedback.



Some of the islands you mention are not


countries. Viti Levu is an island in Fiji,

Tarawa is an island in Kiribati, ‘Eua is an

Island in Tonga, Savai’i is an island in
4/10
Samoa.


You need to be able to differentiate between
a country and an island in a country.


Figure 6.3.3

In each of these cases feedback is given, but only the feedback in the right
hand box is likely to improve the performance of John and Beatrice as it
clearly indicates what both need to do.

Feedback that only gives marks or grades does not provide pupils with the
information they need in order to benefit from the task that produced the
marks and grades.

If the feedback is to be useful to the pupil it must clearly describe what the
pupil must do in order to improve or achieve a higher level of achievement.

In the case of John a check needs to be made to see that he recognizes the
error in his fraction sum. In the case of Beatrice, she needs to see what
kinds of responses would have gained her the six marks that were lost.

180

Providing Beatrice with achievement level statements would help her to see
her weakness and indicate what she needs to aim for.

Tying activities to learning outcomes can be helpful to pupils because the
value and purpose of the activity will be more directly apparent.
So discussing the learning outcomes:


“pupils will be able to add simple fractions with both same and
different
denominators”

and


“pupils will know and identify Pacific Countries”

may help John and Beatrice to see what they are aiming for in order to
satisfy the learning outcomes. It also helps them to understand what effort
they need to achieve not only the level required but the effort to achieve
higher levels if they wish.

Spontaneous feedback


For the information to have the desired effect on improving the teaching
and learning it is important that the feedback of the information takes
place as close as possible to when the teaching/learning takes place. This
means that the information collection needs to take place as part of the
teaching and learning and the information is therefore made available to
both you as the teacher and your pupils immediately after.

Feedback which follows immediately after a pupil attempts a task is most
valuable. If there is any length of time between pupil output and teacher
feedback, there is an inevitable weakening of the link between the two.

Three situations in the classroom lend themselves to spontaneous and
immediate feedback.

-
oral question and answer sessions
-
periods of observation by the teacher
-
activities of short duration that pupils mark themselves after
completion

In each of these cases the feedback is provided orally.

Delayed feedback


Where pupils are doing written work, it may be several days before you are
able to look at the work and add guiding comments as feedback. A delay is
often inevitable, but you should be conscious of the need to get the
feedback completed as soon as possible. Long delays can result in pupils
repeating the same errors simply because they have not received the
feedback that would have enlightened them.

Delayed feedback tends to be restricted to written work that has to be read
and marked by the teacher. In this case feedback is provided in written
form.

One form of delayed feedback that is given orally relates to a written task
that a class has completed, in which there are certain points of weakness
common to many pupils.

181


In this case it is more time-efficient to return to these weaknesses as part
of the next lesson, in which case the feedback would be oral and by
discussion.


The features of strong feedback are;
-
given with as little delay as possible,
-
precisely identifies the weaknesses,
-
detailed enough for pupils to recognize routes to improvement,
-
conforms and links with learning outcomes,
-
recommends achievable changes,
-
carries a tone of encouragement.


182


6.4 Promoting Progress


Monitoring progress is one thing, but it has greater educational value if it
is part of a wider process of promoting progress. This means that the
information you gather by monitoring pupil progress must be used to guide
pupils in the direction of continuing progress.

The earlier sections (4.1 to 4.4) provide guidance on breaking down a
course so that skill-lines and skill-ladders can be developed which show
clearly how learning outcomes define progress along particular paths.

Section 6.2 provides guidance on monitoring pupil progress by linking their
development to the achievement levels that lead towards the learning
outcomes.

All of this information is there to be used for the purpose of promoting
learning and thereby promoting progress. The general term we use to
describe this wealth of information is ‘feedback’ and this has been
discussed in 6.3.

What impedes pupil progress?

There are a number of conditions which contribute to the state whereby
pupil progress is either slow or failing in some way. These include:

1.
pupils having no vision of ‘where they are going’ in their learning.
2.
pupils not knowing where they currently stand in terms of an
achievement level for a learning outcome.
3.
teacher not making use of valuable feedback opportunities.
4.
teacher not ensuring that the groundwork for learning outcomes
is done.
5.
teacher not having the competency to identify specific areas of
weaknesses of pupils

What promotes pupil progress?

Progress is based upon a solid platform, and the features of that platform
are laid out in Chapter 2. The overall effect is to ensure that:

1.
pupils have a clear understanding of ‘where they stand now’.
2.
pupils have a clear vision of the requirements for the next step.
3.
pupils are given opportunities to demonstrate movement from one
achievement level to the next within a learning outcome.
4.
pupils are provided with clear, regular, advisory feedback.
5.
teacher continuously planning opportunities for pupils to apply
and improve their developing skills.

A question, a task, an activity, that you devise to check on one or more
learning outcomes, will create information that tells you whether or not
pupils have met the learning outcomes; and if not, at what achievement
level they currently stand. The information will give you just one of four
general situations.


183

Situation 1: None of the pupils have shown they have met the learning
outcome; their difficulties vary and are widespread.

Situation 2: A group of pupils have not shown that they have met the
learning outcome; they are experiencing a common difficulty
that places them at a particular achievement level.

Situation 3: A few pupils have not shown that they have met the learning
outcome; they have differing individual difficulties, and lie at
differing achievement levels.

Situation 4: All the pupils have shown that they have met the learning
outcome.

Situation number 4 is obviously the most pleasing and allows you and your
pupils to look forward to the next stage. Whereas situations 1, 2, and 3,
will require some specific action in order to change the situation.


Correcting Situation 1

None of the pupils have shown they have met the learning outcome;

their difficulties vary and are widespread.

The responses given by the pupils to the question, task or activity that you
used to check the status of learning for an outcome, will provide you with
strong indications of specific weaknesses, but may not tell you why those
weaknesses exist.
1. Ask the class what they think causes the difficulties. Gather their
suggestions on the blackboard. Use a show of hands to see how much
support each suggestion receives.
2. Reconstruct a lesson that takes account of the pupil suggestions. Re-
teach with the revised lesson format.
3. Ask pupils if they are ready to be rechecked for the learning outcome.
4. If you and the pupils feel the time is right, then have a second attempt
at a question, task or activity for the learning outcome.
Figure 6.4.1


184


Correcting Situation 2

A group of pupils have not shown that they have met the learning
outcome; they are experiencing a common difficulty that places
them at a particular achievement level.


The responses given by the pupils to the question, task or activity that you
used to check the status of learning for an outcome, tells you what the specific
weakness is, but may not tell you why that weakness exists.


1. In discussion with the group, get them to identify and acknowledge the
specific difficulty.
2. Ask the group what they think causes the specific difficulty for them.
Discuss with them possible ways of overcoming the difficulty. Agree on a
plan of action.
3. Provide the group members with materials and examples that focus
explanation on the particular point of difficulty.
4. Let the group members work together in talking out, and trying out,
approaches that may lead to a successful meeting of the learning outcome.

If you and the group feel the time is right, then have a second attempt at a
question, task or activity for the learning outcome.
Figure 6.4.2


Correcting Situation 3

A few individuals have not shown that they have met the learning
outcome; they have differing individual difficulties, and lie at

differing achievement levels.

The responses given by the pupils to the question, task or activity that you
used to check the status of learning for an outcome, tells you what the specific
weakness is for each pupil, but may not tell you why those weaknesses exist.

1. Have one on one, or one on two discussions with the pupil/s having
difficulty. Get them to acknowledge and identify their difficulty.
2. If the pupils agree, then attach a peer-teacher to each. The peer-teacher
must also be happy with the arrangement, and must be one who has
shown strong competence at the learning outcome.
3. Let the pupil and peer-teacher work together until they indicate that they
believe the difficulty has been overcome.
4. If the pupil and the peer-teacher feel the time is right, then give the pupil a
second attempt at a question, task or activity for the learning outcome.
Figure 6.4.3

It is crucial that all teachers are in a position to determine which situation
each of their pupils is in relation to each learning outcome. If teachers are
in no position to identify where their pupils are then they will not be in a
position to assist them. And this is where the job of a teacher becomes at
its most challenging and at its most important!

185



Chapter Seven




7.1 Records and Recording

Throughout this module there have been examples of opportunities for
recording information about the progress and achievement of pupils.
Almost all of the activities in Chapter four have elements of recording built
into them.
Collecting information on the performance of pupils has little value if
pupils do not benefit from the process. Pupils should be able to use the
information to help improve their learning. Teachers should also be able to
use the information collected to improve their teaching and the school
should also use such information to help make the school more effective.
At the national level, each country would like to ensure that the education
system is serving its pupils. It is important therefore that countries have
ways of measuring and reporting the outcomes of schooling. Parents as
well as other stakeholders have reasonable expectations of schools that
they would result in the acquisition by pupils of appropriate skills and
improvement in their general educational attainment. To determine the
extent of improvement in broad terms, data has to be collected about how
pupils are performing and what skills have they achieved.
Many of us have been guilty of being excellent record keepers, with
immaculate mark books showing pages of numbers representing the
performance of our pupils in numerous activities. Most often the numbers
represent a mark out of some total. These records have tended to be
primarily used as a basis for reporting performance; not early to pupils,
but late to parents and others. Very rarely do the records say anything
meaningful about progress, and very rarely do the records offer specific
information on pupil strengths and weaknesses.
It is true that you are expected to maintain adequate records for the
purpose of reporting to parents and others. But if pupils are to benefit from
your information gathering and record keeping, the process must become
an integral part of the teaching-learning dynamic; a process that influences
the next phase of your teaching.
Record-keeping is an integral part of teaching practice and assessment,
and is a fundamental tool in reporting. Records of pupil achievements
provide the means of bringing together a school’s policies and assessment
practices, recording and reporting into a coherent process as indicated in
Figure 7.1.1.





186




Assessing

Achievement








Reporting
Recording
Achievement
Achievement

Figure 7.1.1

(Adapted from “Effective teacher assessment; C.Mitchell & V.Koshy, 1993)

Formal reporting needs to be based on accurately recorded data. Key
information contained in such records is important for analysing the
continuity of pupil progress and coordinating assessment results which
provide the basis for purposeful reporting on pupil progress. Pupil
academic record therefore provides both a guideline for recording what is
important as well as providing a mechanism for collecting that data easily,
throughout the year. Year-end reporting then becomes an exercise of
simply indicating which items are important enough to go forward as
evidence of academic achievement.

You will notice that nowhere in this module are scores or marks
mentioned, except in the section on ‘Feedback’ where the point was made
that giving a pupil a mark or a grade is not in itself helpful. There needs to
be specific guidance that leads pupils along a path to improvement.

Figures 7.1.2 and 7.1.3 depict the purposes of recording and the format of
the records. In Figure 7.1.2, the emphasis on the pupil-teacher dynamic is
emphasized by the bolder representation of the left-hand-side of the figure.

In Figure 7.1.3, of the eight listed formats, six are directly accessed by
pupils and are designed to provide feedback that improves performance;
one is accessed by the teacher and is a means of modifying teaching; and
one is made available to third parties such as parents, and school
administration. There is a ratio of seven to one in favour of opportunities
for pupils to receive guidance towards improvement. And that is how it
should be.

The records include both those produced by the pupils and those produced
by the teacher. Recording can be considered by its purpose, or by its
format.

Recording for purpose falls into two main categories. The first and most
frequent purpose is ‘feedback’. The second purpose has been to record
‘achievement’. Figure 7.1.3 represents these purposes.



187




Recording Purpose






Feedback
Achievement






To Pupils
To Teacher
Progress
Attainment

Figure 7.1.2

The recording format for information has appeared as a variety of styles,
and these are represented in Figure 7.1.3.

On Lesson Plan:

The lesson plan recommends the provision of recording feedback generated
during the lesson. T e appraisal portion is to record aspects of the lesson
h

that are worth repeating or need modifying. An example of the recording
opportunity is shown in the example listed under the ‘Lesson Plan’ box of
Figure 7.1.3.

188

g
u
r
e

7
.
1
.
3

F
i

189

By Tally Chart:

The tally chart records numbers of pupils who either meet a learning
outcome or fail to meet a learning outcome. The chart will specify
whether it is inadequate or successful performance that is being
counted, and it will specify exactly which questions are represented by
the tally.

The purpose of the tally chart is to pinpoint areas of learning that the
class as a whole needs to revisit. Most often the information collected by
the tally chart arrives anonymously and for this reason is best used to
gauge the class not a particular individual. Examples of various tally
charts are listed under the ‘Tally Chart’ box of Figure 7.1.3.

On Pupil Work:

There will be times when it is appropriate to write comments directly
onto pupils’ work. This is the traditional idea of ‘marking’ the work, and
is a form of recording information on performance. Wherever possible
you should offer praise for the successful portions, and constructive
encouragement and guidance on those parts that are to be improved or
corrected. Examples of comments on pupil work are listed under the
‘Pupil Work’ box of Figure 7.1.3.

By Checklist:

Figure 7.1.3 shows the ‘Checklist’ box subdivided into ‘Simple’ and ‘By
Criteria’. A simple checklist only requires a or a depending upon a
particular item being satisfied or not satisfied.

A checklist that falls into the ‘By Criteria’ format is often called a ‘Rating
Scale’, as the expected range of performance cannot be judged by a
simple or . There are different levels of performance, and these levels
are described by the criterion descriptors present in the checklist.
Examples of both types of checklist are listed separately in Figure 7.1.3
under their respective boxes of ‘Simple’ and ‘By Criteria’.

On Data Collection Sheet:

A ‘Data Collection Sheet’ holds notes written by you either as a pupil
completes an activity or immediately after the pupil completes an
activity. It provides a formal way of gathering information on
performance. It may be completed as the pupil performance is being
observed, and therefore acts as a memory to a performance that
otherwise would have no record. For example, if a pupil is giving a short
talk on a topic, notes are made during the talk that can aid you in
discussing the performance with the pupil after they have finished.

Data Collection Sheets can be used in conjunction with a checklist (of
either type), so that you can record both for feedback and also for
achievement of learning outcomes. Examples are listed under the ‘Data
Collection Sheet’ box of Figure 7.1.3.


190

Progress Record:

Progress Records are designed to record pupil performance in activities
for which it is normal to expect gradual improvement. It may be that a
particular learning outcome can be described at various levels of
competency, and a Progress Record can record the levels a pupil
reaches over a period of time. Examples are listed under the ‘Progress
Record’ in Figure 7.1.3.

Mark-book


Many of our schools have no specific policy on how to keep records of
pupils’ achievements. Consequently many teachers have their own way
of keeping records. In many instances teachers keep a mark-book where
all marks from the various assessments are kept. The problem however
is that the records in the mark-book are either marks or grades and give
no or little indication of what pupils are able to do or where they are
having learning difficulties.

While teacher mark-book allow for pupils’ results in the various
assessments to be recorded, they exist as individual and often unrelated
evidence of pupil’s achievements. Such records fail to provide a clear
indication of how the pupil has progressed and often fail to give the
teacher any insight into the pupil’s development or his/her ability to
work in groups or communicate ideas.

Figure 7.1.4 gives an example of part of a typical record found in a
teacher’s mark book for a Grade Six Maths class in 2005.


Grade: Six Subject: Maths Year: 2005
Name
Test 1 Test 2 Project Homework Test 3
Total
(20)
(30)
(15)
(10)
(50)
(125)
Donald Smith
9
14
12
5
28

68
Peter Davies
12
24
10
4
26
76
Mary Low
6
7
9
8
9
39
Harry Porter
11
15
10
6
26
68
Pamela Jones
10
6
9
4
21
50
Timothy Noa
6
15
12
1
14
48
Richard Lolo
14
21
14
7
16
72
Doreen Parker
8
13
6
5
25
57
Eileen Khan
9
15
8
5
18
55
Masi Kalolo
11
14
12
7
21
65
Paul Hana
14
26
13
7
34
94
Lulu Kosi
18
24
14
9
45
110
Peta Lotu
15
18
12
7
34
86
Lavinia Amos
12
15
7
4
28
66
Edward Koroi
8
14
5
8
20
55
Figure 7.1.4

As seen from the record in Figure 7.1.4. it would be difficult to monitor
the progress of each pupil other than to comment on how they
performed in each of the assessments. It would be possible to say that

191

Lulu Kosi with a total assessment score of 110 out of a total of 125, did
well in all the assessments but it would not be possible to identify what
areas would Lulu possibly need assistance in and what specific areas
she did well in. Similarly it would be possible to say that Mary Low
needs a lot of help in Maths but one cannot specifically state what
specific help Mary Low needs in order to improve her performance.

192


7.2 Record of Achievements




Recording pupil achievements provides the opportunity for teachers to
document and record the development of certain qualities or skills in
each pupil throughout the duration of their course of study. It also
provides each pupil with the opportunity to reflect on their experiences
and achievements. Such records provide the platform for reporting such
achievements and experiences to parents, teachers as well as other
stakeholders. One however needs to be clear of what needs to be
recorded, that is, what achievements and experiences need to be
recorded.
Achievements are those learning events relating to the development of
particular skills or learning outcomes and have been verified with
documentary evidence through relevant assessment methods.
Verification may be in the form of the results of an activity designed for
the purpose of providing evidence from pupils.
Experiences on the other hand are opportunities that contribute to the
development of particular skills for which there has been no formal
assessment. For example, the pupil may have represented his/her
country in sporting events, Such experiences are valuable as they may
significantly contribute to the development of sporting qualities.
Pupil achievements and experiences that could be recorded may be
directly related to their courses and programme of study, or extra
curricula experiences or related to real life activities outside of school
such as involvement in community organizations.
The challenge for teachers is to identify the relevant experiences and
achievements and to record them in ways that allow them to be easily
retrieved. This allows you as the teacher to identifying areas of
strengths and those areas that need further improvement and
assistance. A record of achievement (RoA) is one such record.
A RoA is a document which the teacher can develop over time and
through all learning experiences. Once developed, it can demonstrate
the range of skills applicable to each area of study, and which the pupil
has achieved, that are relevant to life outside the school. It can also
indicate those areas of skills and learning experiences where the pupil
needs further development.

A pupil’s record of achievement is expected to raise awareness about the
process of learning and the development of personal transferable skills
general academic skills and subject specific skills which should help the
pupil to reflect on his/her learning and evaluate the developmental changes
that have taken place. It also helps provide the teacher with a structure
to work with especially in addressing those skill areas the pupil still
lack.

193

For the pupil, the record of achievement helps in organizing all relevant
information about his or her learning while at the same time provides a
framework for recording skills developed over time, so that the pupil can
easily recognise the range of their achievements over time. It also helps
by summarising all the pupil has achieved thus acting as a reminder of
the pupil’s achievements. It provides a more succinct record of a pupil’s
life, and achievements during the learning.
The Record of Achievement is the ultimate recording mechanism
because it registers all those achievements and experiences as well as
learning outcomes that the pupil has met. As more and more outcomes
are met, the profile of the pupil in terms of learning outcomes grows.
Two examples are listed under ‘Record of Achievement’ in Figure 7.1.2.

Figure 7.2.1 to 7.2.6 show the Record of Achievement in Language for
pupil Tari.

Figure 7.2.1 shows the record as it stands at the end of Year 2. Tari is
doing well overall, as the majority of learning outcomes expected to be
achieved by the end of Year 2, have been achieved. Handwriting is
advanced at this stage. ‘Pronunciation’ is showing some weakness and
this is having an effect on ‘Expression’ when reading aloud.

Figure 7.2.2 shows the record as it stands at the end of Year 3. Again
Tari is doing well overall. ‘Pronunciation’ and ‘Expression’ have
advanced though Tari is still behind the target outcomes for Year 3.

Figure 7.2.3 shows the record as it stands at the end of Year 5. This has
been a really good year for Tari. The record shows that the previous
weaknesses in ‘Pronunciation’ and ‘Expression’ have been eliminated.
Tari’s ‘Listening’ skills are well advanced, and ‘Handwriting quality
remains a strength; a little slow but of high quality.

Figure 7.2.4 shows the record as it stands at the end of Year 6. Despite
remaining strong overall, further improvement was expected in
‘Expression’, ‘Composition’ and the ‘Use of Adjectives’. These are areas
to work on in the future.

This Record of Achievement should be forwarded so that the Year 7
Language teacher is aware of the current standing.














194

Record of Achievement – Language

Name Tari


End of Grade 2


Learning Outcomes


Key Strand
Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade
1
2
3
4
5
6
I.Listening

A. Identify






B. Distinguish






C. Comprehend






II.Speaking

A. Pronounce






B. Communicate






III.Reading

A. Identify






B. Express






IV.Writing

A. Composition






V. Handwriting

A. Shape






B. Copy






C. Speed






V1. Grammar






A. Identify Parts






B. Verb Tenses






C. Use of adjectives






D. Punctuation






E. Time markers






F. Sentence






Complexity
Figure 7.2.1


















195

Record of Achievement – Language

Name Tari


End of Grade 3

Learning Outcomes


Key Strand
Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade
Grade
1
2
3
4
5
6
I.Listening

A. Identify






B. Distinguish






C. Comprehend






II.Speaking

A. Pronounce






B. Communicate





III.Reading

A. Identify






B. Express






IV.Writing

A. Composition






V. Handwriting

A. Shape






B. Copy






C. Speed






V1. Grammar






A. Identify Parts






B. Verb Tenses






C. Use of






adjectives
D. Punctuation






E. Time markers





F. Sentence






Complexity
Figure 7.2.2


















196

Record of Achievement – Language

Name Tari


End of Grade 5


Learning Outcomes


Key Strand
Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade
1
2
3
4
5
6
I.Listening

A. Identify






B. Distinguish






C. Comprehend






II.Speaking

A. Pronounce






B. Communicate






III.Reading

A. Identify






B. Express






IV.Writing

A. Composition






V. Handwriting

A. Shape






B. Copy






C. Speed






V1. Grammar






A. Identify Parts






B. Verb Tenses






C. Use of adjectives





D. Punctuation






E. Time markers






F. Sentence






Complexity
Figure 7.2.3


















197

Record of Achievement – Language

Name Tari


End of Grade 6


Learning Outcomes


Key Strand
Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade
1
2
3
4
5
6
I.Listening

A. Identify






B. Distinguish






C. Comprehend






II.Speaking

A. Pronounce






B. Communicate






III.Reading

A. Identify






B. Express






IV.Writing

A. Composition






V. Handwriting

A. Shape






B. Copy






C. Speed






V1. Grammar






A. Identify Parts






B. Verb Tenses






C. Use of adjectives






D. Punctuation






E. Time markers






F. Sentence






Complexity
Figure 7.2.4

The grey cells of Figures 7.2.5 and 7.2.6 indicate cells that do not
contain learning outcomes for that skill-line at that particular level.

The green cells represent learning outcomes achieved for that particular
skill-line and at the indicated year levels.

At the end of Year 4 Tari is behind expectations in most of the skill-
lines. During Year 5 particular help will be needed in geometry and
measurement.

Tari will benefit from a combination of practice and one-on-one advice
in the areas of ordering, geometry and measurement.






198

Record of Achievement – Mathematics

Name Tari


End of Grade 4

Learning Outcomes
Key Strand
Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade
Grade
1
2
3
4
5
6
I.Numeration
A. Count






B. Read & Write






C. Distinguish






II.Ordering
A. Compare






B. Interpolate






C. Estimate






D. Order






E. Count & Write






III.Operations
A. Addition

1. Decompose






2. Whole numbers






3. Decimals






4. Fractions






Com.statement






B. Subtraction

1. Whole number






2. Decimals






3. Fractions






4. Com.statement






C. Multiplication

1. W/ numbers






2. Decimals






3. Fractions






D. Division

1. W/numbers






2. Decimals






IV.Geometry
A. Orientation






B. Plane shapes






C. Solids






D. Drawing






V. Measurement
A. Length






B. Area






C. Mass






D. Volume






E. Money






F. Time






G. Statistics






Figure 7.2.5


199

Record of Achievement – Mathematics


Name Tari


End of Grade 6


Learning Outcomes
Key Strand
Grade
Grade Grade Grade Grade
Grade
1
2
3
4
5
6
I.Numeration
A. Count






B. Read & Write






C. Distinguish






II.Ordering
A. Compare






B. Interpolate






C. Estimate






D. Order






E. Count & Write






III.Operations
A. Addition

1. Decompose






2. Whole numbers





3. Decimals






4. Fractions






5. Com.statement






B. Subtraction

1. Whole number






2. Decimals






3. Fractions






4. Com.statement





C. Multiplication

1. W/umbers






2. Decimals






3. Fractions






D. Division

1. Whole numbers





2. Decimals






IV.Geometry
A. Orientation






B. Plane shapes






C. Solids






D. Drawing






V. Measurement
A. Length






B. Area






C. Mass






D. Volume






E. Money






F. Time






G. Statistics






Figure 7.2.6

200

It has been mentioned on many occasions, in the preceding sections
that the measure of pupil progress in a subject relates directly to the
achievement of specific learning outcomes embedded in the course
objectives as outlined in the course document.

A pupil who is successfully achieving the expected level in the learning
outcomes of the course is progressing in the right direction.

The learning outcomes are achieved one by one as you and your pupils
cover the course material through the teaching/learning process. Since
there is considerable time involved in completing a course it naturally
follows that there may be long periods leading up to the monitoring of
the extent to which your pupils achieve the specific learning outcomes.

Also, pupils will not all successfully achieve the learning outcomes at
the same time. Therefore you need to have in place some method of
recording pupil success as they work towards fully achieving the
learning outcomes. This record should be available continuously so that
record entries can be made at any time and pupils progress
continuously updated with the availability of more information.

The format of the “Record of Achievement” will depend greatly on the
course structure. In addition to the format used in Figures 7.2.1 to
7.2.6, Figure 7.2.7 gives another example.

In Figure 7.2.7, the Record of Achievement form has been designed to
suit a Grade 7 Science course.

The course book divides the Grade 7 content into the content sections
of “Measurement”, “Water”, “Living Things”, “Magnetism and
Electricity”, “Reproduction, Growth and Development”.

Each content section is given letter codes, in this case, M, W, LT, ME,
and RGD.

Each of the content areas lists the learning outcomes representing
successful content coverage. Each learning outcome is further coded on
the cognitive or practical skill implied by the outcome. These are listed
as “Knowledge”, “Understanding”, “Application”, and “Practical”.

Each cell, on the Record of Achievement form Figure 7.2.7, therefore
represents a specific learning outcome that can be directly traced back
to the course document. As a pupil achieves a learning outcome, a ring
can be drawn around the number that represents the outcome in Figure
7.2.7.
So for example W9, which is a Water-Knowledge learning outcome
is represented in the course document as:

“know that water is present in all living things (and in the soil) and that it

is essential for their survival”

In Figure 7.2.8, the “Record of Achievement” form has been designed to
suit a Language (LA) course that runs from Grade 1 to Grade 6. The
course book shows content sections based on the skills of “Listening”,
“Speaking”, “Reading”, “Writing”, “Handwriting” and “Grammar”.


201

From the course book the specific learning outcomes can be extracted
for each skill area, at each of the six grade levels. If each content section
is given a letter code, in this case LAL, LAS, LAR, LAW, LAHW, LAG, and
LASP, then the specific learning outcomes relating to each skill can be
identified by extending the letter code.

So, for example, LAW can become 2LAW1, which identifies it as a Grade
2 specific learning outcome, and it is the 1st learning outcome under
the Key Strand of ‘Writing’ .

Grade
Skill
Outcome
section
number
2 Writing
1


2LAW1


The specific learning outcome extracted reads:

“Pupils can write short simple sentences on a connected topic, using full
stops and capital letters”.

The cell representing the learning outcome 2LAW1 is shown in Figure
7.2.8,
with the word ‘Example’. For the Language course the same Key
Strands run throughout the years from Grade 1 to Grade 6, and
therefore the development of each skill can be monitored on the ‘Record
of Achievement’, over this period.

202

1
1
7
6
1
1
7
8
8
1
6
1
6
5
Practical
7
7
1
5
2
2
6
6
2
:
Patrick
Pupil
Application
1
4
7
9
1
7
1
5
1
3
1
2
6
5
1
1
4
1
4
5
1
1
0
1
4
7
9
Understanding
3
6

ACHIEVEMENT

4
1
3
5

OF

12
1
4
5
Figure 7.2.7
3
2
Grade:
RECORD
1
3
1
2
8
0
1
1
2
1
8
9
1
0
7
9
5
8
4
Knowledge
4
4

3
3
1
7
3
2
2
Science
1
1

1
:
gs
i
n
h
Subject
M
W
LT
Water
and
ME
RGD
Magnetism
Electricity
Measurement
Living T
Reproduction, Growth and Development
203

Record of Achievement

Subject: Language Name: Tari Year: End of Grade 3


Learning Outcomes


Key Strand
Grade 1
Grade 2
Grade 3
Grade 4
Grade 5
Grade 6
I. Listening

A. Identify






B. Distinguish






C. Comprehend






II. Speaking

A. Pronounce






B. Communicate






III. Reading

A. Identify






B. Express






IV. Writing

A. Composition

Example




V. Handwriting

A. Shape






B. Copy






C. Speed






V1. Grammar






A. Identify Parts






B. Verb Tenses






C. Use of adjectives





D. Punctuation






E. Time markers






F. Sentence






Complexity


Figure 7.2.8

204


7.3 Progress
Records


Pupil progress reports are valuable tools for helping you keep stay on track
of your pupils’ progress throughout the year. Not only do they allow you to
keep track of your pupil’s achievements in relation to expectations, they
allow you to gauge their progress in the various skills and learning
outcomes in their programme of study thus making it easier for both you
and the pupil to take stock of the areas where pupils need to improve and
At the same time, progress reports are a useful mechanism for ensuring a
constructive dialogue and feedback between you and your pupil.
As a mechanism for tracking pupils’ progress throughout their course of
study, pupils’ progress reports become property of the school and will be
used to document the pupil’s progress in his/her programme and set clear
goals so that pupils will know what is expected of them in order to achieve
the expected standard. Moreover, in cases where the pupil fails to make
satisfactory progress, the progress report will serve as a basis for
identifying the necessary intervention.
Progress records provide the basis for you as the teacher to monitor pupils’
performance as well as to carry out a review of each pupil’s progress in
order to determine whether there are academic and learning issues that
need to be discussed with individual pupils throughout the year. Such
review can identify those pupils who are on target to achieving the expected
outcomes as well as those considered to be “at risk” of missing the target. It
also provides the opportunity to identify those who have shown a level of
performance that does not meet the required standard.

E For example, one skill that pupils develop over a period of time is that of
catching a ball. Pupils take differing amounts of time to develop this skill.
It is therefore necessary for your observations to be intermittent and
spread out over many months, possibly years.

The ultimate learning outcome may be;

“Pupils can catch a ball with confidence no matter what position the ball
arrives in, providing it is within arms length.”

The learning outcome is developed slowly by passing through different
levels of competence. Different stages of competence can be expressed as
achievement levels, and the achievement levels can form the pathway to
meeting the full learning outcome.








205

For example;


Catching a Ball

Level Achievement
Levels
4
Ball caught every time when arriving at
various angles
3
Ball caught every time when direct
2
Ball caught at least 3 out of 5 when direct
1
Ball caught 1 out of 5 attempts when direct
0
Ball is always dropped

Figure 7.3.1






The ball catching example also lends itself to informal and spontaneous
observation of pupils. You may notice that while Sisi and Siro are playing,
both are throwing a ball to each other with full confidence in catching.
There is no need to wait for an ‘official’ activity before recording the fact
that both Sisi and Siro are competent ball catchers and have satisfied the
learning outcome.

It is worthwhile telling Sisi and Siro what you have noticed, and that you
are going to record their success.



Progress Record

Catching and Throwing
Pupil 1st
2nd
3rd
4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th
Amos
0 1
2
1
3 3 3 3 4
Fatu 1
1
2
2
4





Kalo 0
1
2
2
4





Lulu
0 0 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3
Mala 1
2
3
3
4





Shem 1
1
3
4






Taun 1
2
3
3
4





Yona 1
2
3
3
4





Sisi 2 3
2 4







Figure 7.3.2






Figure 7.3.2 shows the level of achievement reached by each pupil in a
class. The record covers a period of eighteen months between the 1st
observation and the last recorded 10th observation. All the pupils apart
from Lulu have reached the full learning outcome, which means that they
are competent catchers and throwers of a ball.



206

Pupils’ progress report helps teachers to explore the reasons for the pupil’s
progress difficulties establish what needs to be achieved by the pupils and
the effort that is needed and also consider any additional learning support
the pupil might need and how this might be provided in order to address
the difficulty.

Figure 7.3.3
shows a Progress Record for Lam who is in Class 4K, a Grade
4 class. The record is for the Key Strand of ‘Grammar’ in the Language
course.

Interpretation of the record reveals that Lam can:

- identify parts of speech to achievement level 2 for the Grade 4 learning
outcome;
- use differing verb tenses to the level expected by the Grade 3 learning
outcome;
- use adjectives to achievement level 1 for the Grade 3 learning outcome;
- use punctuation to a level expected by the Grade 4 learning outcome;
- use time markers to a level expected by the Grade 4 learning outcome;
- develop sentences to achievement level 1 for the Grade 4 learning
outcome;
- transform sentences to a level expected by the Grade 4 learning outcome.
Lam is on track in a number of skills, but is lagging behind in:

- the use of verb tenses
- use of adjectives
- developing sentence complexity.

Lam needs to be given exercises specifically targeting these areas, coupled
with guiding feedback.

Figure 7.3.4 shows a progress record for Lam who is in Class 4K, a Grade 4
class. The record is for the Key Strand ‘Operations’, sub-strand ‘Addition’,
in the Mathematics course.

Interpretation of the record reveals that Lam can:

• decompose numbers up to the level expected by the Grade 6 learning
outcome
• add whole numbers up to the level expected by the Grade 5 learning
outcome decimal numbers up to the level expected by the Year 5
learning outcome
• add fractions up to the level expected by the Grade 5 learning outcome
• complete addition statements up to the level expected at Grade 6

Lam is on track in all the skill-lines of addition, and is in fact ahead of
expectations and would benefit from ‘extension’ exercises that challenge
him above the level expressed by the learning outcomes.

Alternatively, Lam could be encouraged to devote some of the ‘Mathematics’
time to correct weaknesses in his ‘Language’ course.

207

Progress Record – ‘Grammar’

Name
……Lam……… Grade
……4K… Year
…2006…
V1.
Learning Outcomes
Grammar






(skill-ladders)
Grade 1
Grade 2
Grade 3
Grade 4
Grade 5
Grade 6








Identify Parts

Common
nouns,
Adverbs,

Abstract nouns

verbs, pronouns,
conjunctions

adjectives






Verb Tenses
Uses common
Uses common
Uses continuous
Uses conditional
Evidence
of
verbs with both
verbs with future
form of common
form of common
expanded
present and past
tense
verbs
verbs
repertoire of
tenses
verbs









Use of Adjectives

Size, colour,
Regular
Irregular


appearance,
comparative and
comparative and
superlative
superlative






Punctuation

Uses full stops


Uses
commas,
Uses
exclamation

and capital
speech marks,
marks
letters
question marks






Time Markers

Uses:
Uses:
Uses:


today, tomorrow, always, never,
next, often,
yesterday,
sometimes
before, after








Sentence
Complexity
Simple
Simple connected Complex
Paragraphing
Logically ordered Varied range






Sentence
Transformation



Simple to complex Complex to


simple
Figure 7.3.3

208

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Grade
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Progress Record – ‘Addition’

t
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ade

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+ b = c 100
G
Grade
b
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:
m
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2
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N
Sub-Strand ‘Addition’ (Skill-lines)
Complete
1. Decompose
2. Whole numbers
3. Decimals
4. Fractions
6. statement
209

7.4 Portfolios

One way of recording the achievements of pupils is to compile pieces of a
pupil’s work and retain them as evidence of what a pupil has achieved,
that is, a pupil portfolio.

A pupil portfolio is a collection of pieces of work that the pupil has
produced. It is a collection that the pupil has chosen to retain and
comprise of work the pupil is proud of. A pupil can select, within given
constraints, examples of his or her work that fairly reflects his or her
achievements over a given period. Portfolios in classrooms today are
derived from the visual and performing arts tradition in which they serve to
showcase artists' accomplishments and personally favoured works.

A portfolio may be a folder containing a pupil's best pieces of work and the
pupil's evaluation of the strengths and weaknesses of the pieces. It may
also contain one or more works-in-progress that illustrate the creation of a
product, such as an essay, evolving through various stages of conception,
drafting, and revision.

Portfolios are useful as a support to the new instructional approaches that
emphasize the pupil's role in constructing understanding and the teacher's
role in promoting understanding. For example, in writing instruction,
portfolios can function to illustrate the range of assignments, goals, and
audiences for which a pupil produced written materials. In addition,
portfolios can be a record of the activities undertaken over time in the
development of written products. They can also be used to support
cooperative teaming by offering an opportunity for pupils to share and
comment on each other's work
In addition, portfolios are also valued as an assessment tool in themselves
as they are a cumulative collection of a pupil’s classroom work. And unlike
separate tests, they supplement rather than take time away from
instruction. Moreover, many teachers, educators, and researchers believe
that portfolio assessments are more effective than "old-style" tests for
measuring academic skills and informing instructional decisions.
Pupils have over the years been doing assignments in notebooks and
folders, so what's exciting and different about portfolios? Portfolios
capitalize on pupils' natural tendency to save work and become an effective
way to get them to take a second look and think about how they could
improve future work. As any teacher or pupil can confirm, this method is a
clear departure from the old write, hand in, and forget mentality, where
first drafts were considered final products.
Although there is no single correct way for developing portfolios, in all of
them pupils are expected to collect, select, and reflect. Early in the school
year, pupils are pressed to consider: What would I like to reread or share
with my parents or a friend? What makes a particular piece of writing, an
approach to a mathematics problem, or a write-up of a science project a

210

good product? In building a portfolio of selected pieces and explaining the
basis for their choices, pupils generate their own criteria for good work,
with teacher and peer input. Pupils need specifics with clear guidelines and
examples to get started on their work, so these discussions need to be well
guided and structured. The earlier the discussions begin, the better.
While portfolios were developed on the model of the visual and performing
arts tradition of showcasing accomplishments, portfolios in classrooms
today are a highly flexible instructional and assessment tool, adaptable to
diverse curricula, pupil age/grade levels, and administrative contexts.
All portfolios involve pupils in their own education so that they take charge
of their personal collection of work, reflect on what makes some work
better, and use this information to make improvements in future work.
Research shows that pupils see assessment as something that is done to
them on their class work by someone else. Consequently many pupils have
little knowledge of what is involved in evaluating their own work. Portfolios
provide the structure for involving pupils in developing and understanding
criteria for good efforts, in coming to see the criteria as their own, and in
applying the criteria to their own work as well as to work of others.
Research also shows that pupils benefit from an awareness of the
processes and strategies involved in writing, solving a problem, researching
a topic, analyzing information, or describing their own observations.
Encouraging pupils to build a collection of work over time is a good way of
involving them in decisions about quality of work, and the meeting of
learning outcomes. Any interest that you are able to nurture in this way
will pay dividends for individual pupils; an interested pupil is far more
likely to learn than is an uninterested pupil. The act of choosing by the
pupil, requires the pupil to think and to pose self questions such as;


“Is this the best I can do?”

“Is this piece of work good enough for my portfolio?”

“Do I want to put this piece of work into my portfolio?”

“Shall I replace this piece of work with my other one
which I think is better?”

Figure 7.4.1

Traditionally a portfolio of work implies work that is two dimensional, for
example writing on paper, painting on canvas, photographs and design
work. The idea can be extended to include collections of three dimensional
objects. These may be pupil constructions such as models, pieces of work
generated in wood, metal or plastic. They may also include objects collected
in support of some ‘project’.


211

It is probable that the pupil choice of work for inclusion is influenced to a
large extent by comment that you have made about the work. In order to
avoid this being the sole determinant, a practice of discussing the work
with the pupil so that self criticism is as much a part of the decision as are
your comments.


“Are you happy with this piece of work?”

“What do you think are the best bits?”

“Do you see anything that you could have done better?”

“Do you want to see it in your portfolio?”

Figure 7.4.2

Teachers are busy people, and it is not always possible to revisit pieces of
individual pupil work when you have already spent time ‘marking’ the work
in your own time. So it is unavoidable that some pupil work will carry your
comments. For example;


A pupil has completed an exercise on determining the
ground floor area of the house she lives in. She has
found the floor area of each room, and summed the
areas of all rooms. The work is correct and clearly laid
out.

You have commented on the work:

Pakoa, I am really pleased with this work. Everything
about it shows that you understand ‘area’ very well. Not
only that but you have a skill that will be useful when
you have your own house and the builder needs to
know the area of the room you want to cement!!

Figure 7.4.3

Portfolios can quickly become bulky animals. In order to keep them
manageable a policy of pruning them needs to be agreed with the pupils.
Perhaps each portfolio can have a maximum number of pieces of work,
such as twenty. After that if one piece goes into the portfolio, one has to be
selected to come out, and perhaps go home with the pupil.
Clearly if an inferior piece of work has found its place in a portfolio it will
be easy to replace it with one of better quality. This is likely to happen
where competency grows in a particular key strand of work. In this case,
the piece of work that is present in the portfolio represents the latest
achievement level for a given skill or set of skills. For example, pupils are
likely to improve in the art of essay writing. Rather than keep a succession
of essays in the portfolio, the whole set can be represented by the current
best effort.


212

If there is reason to retain pieces of work that shows the development of
the pupil competency over a period of time, then the nature of the portfolio
will be different from that described above.

A pupil portfolio does not contain any pieces of work completed by a pupil.
It contains a purposefully selected subset of a pupil’s work that tells a
story about the pupil and depends on the purpose of the portfolio. If the
purpose is to highlight the progress a pupil has made (growth), the
portfolio might contain samples of earlier and later work, often with the
pupil assessing the growth. If the purpose is to capture the process of
learning and growth of pupil, then the pupil and/or teacher might select
items that illustrate the development of one or more skills with reflection
upon the process that led to that development. If however the purpose is to
showcase the final products or best work of a pupil, then the portfolio
would likely contain samples that best exemplify the pupil's current ability
to apply relevant knowledge and skills.

Portfolios typically are created for one of three purposes: to show growth in
a particular area or skill in a pupil, to showcase abilities of a pupil, and to
evaluate cumulative achievement a pupil has made. In the case of growth
portfolios, the focus is on the progress and changes over time. At the same
time it helps develop pupil’s process skills such as self-evaluation as well
as goal setting. This also helps in identifying pupils’ strengths and
weaknesses while providing the opportunity to track the development of a
product or a performance.

As the name suggests, showcase portfolios focus on showcasing the
abilities of a pupil at the end of a course. Pupils have the opportunity to
prepare samples of their best work for various purposes; for employment
opportunities, for admission to higher levels of education, for consideration
for awards, etc. It also provides the teacher the opportunity to have a better
understanding of a pupil’s perception and what they consider as their best,
or favourite or most important piece of work.
Evaluation portfolios focus on documenting a pupil’s work for the purposes
of grading purposes. This means that pupils only include pieces of their
work they want to be included in the assessment and be graded. The
pupil’s work is documented and assessed relative to pre-determined
standards and the grading is then used to place pupils appropriately.
In summary, the growth portfolio focuses on the process of learning
whereas the showcase portfolio focuses on the products of learning. Of
course a portfolio may tell more than one story and include more than one
of the three categories indicated above. For example a showcase portfolio
might also be used for evaluation purposes and a growth portfolio might
also showcase "final" performances or products. The important issue is
that the purpose(s) is/are clear throughout the process to pupils, teachers
and any other interested audience.
Creating a portfolio is an art and needs the close collaboration of both the
teacher and the pupil. Before you can design the portfolio task for your
pupils to develop, you and your pupils need to be clear about the story the

213

portfolio will be telling. Certainly, you should not assign a portfolio unless
you have a compelling reason to do so. Portfolios take time and effort to
create, manage and assess. Otherwise they can easily become a burden to
you and your pupils if they just become folders filled with pupils’ papers.
Both you and your pupils need to believe that the selection of any of their
work serves one or more meaningful purposes.
In developing portfolios, the following key questions are recommended and
answers need to be clearly identified before the development;
• What is the purpose(s) of the portfolio?
• For what audience(s) will the portfolio be created?
• What samples of student work will be included?
• What processes (e.g., selection of work to be included, reflection on
work, conferencing) will be engaged in during the development of the
portfolio?
• How will time and materials be managed in the development of the
portfolio?
• How and when will the portfolio be shared with appropriate
audiences?
• If the portfolio is to be used for evaluation, when and how should it
be evaluated?
























214


7.5 Reporting Achievements


Reporting is the process of communicating clear and comprehensive
information to all stakeholders such as pupils, parents, teachers and the
system about what pupils know and can do, along with recommendations
for improving the progress and achievement of pupils. This implies that
schools should ensure that appropriate mechanism is put in place to
collect the specific information relating to the progress and achievement of
all of its pupils. It is necessary to make the information available to
parents, students and teachers as well as to systems and administrators.
All these stakeholders need information so that they can effectively plan
instructional programmes and improve learning.

Deciding how to present written reports which are accessible and
meaningful to stakeholders and remain manageable within the context of
all the other demands on teacher time is no easy task.

The primary purpose of reporting is to improve pupil learning by providing
information to both the pupil and parents about the pupil’s achievements
and progress and to indicate areas where further development are
necessary. To do this the reporting process must be an integral part of the
teaching and learning process. The reporting process should foster
partnerships between the teachers and parents in an effort to support the
pupil’s learning and progress. The report should then provide a formal
record at a point in time of the pupil’s progress and achievements while
providing a measure of the school’s accountability for the pupil’s
achievements and learning.
The report must enable regular monitoring of pupil learning and provide
ongoing, constructive feedback to pupils that focuses on ways their
learning can be further developed. This process should develop pupils'
capacity to reflect on their learning, their successes and areas for further
learning and hence assist their development as independent, life-long
learners.
To be effective, the reporting procedure should reflect the integrated nature
of assessment and reporting and based on valid and reliable assessment
data. It should be based on a range of evidence from such sources as
teacher observations, annotated pupil work samples, tests, portfolios,
exhibitions and presentations. Teacher judgments in the reporting process
should be based on sound evidence and a shared understanding of
standards.
Information from reports should be made available to all teachers involved
with the pupils during the year and be provided to subsequent teachers as
the pupils’ move through their schooling. This process supports teachers to
become 'active investigators of pupil learning' and increases their
effectiveness.

215

In general the quality of the reporting whether to parents, teachers, pupils
or public, is directly related to the general quality of the communication
processes within the school. The school has a responsibility to be aware of
the needs of parents whose command of the English language and culture
hinders communication, and to provide arrangements which assist them to
participate in meaningful communication with the school. As some parents
find it difficult to make initial contact with schools, procedures which
actively encourage parent contact should be established, especially the
opportunity reporting provides for teachers, parents and pupils to discuss
face to face issues relating to the learning of the pupil. During such
discussions teachers must be careful to ensure that any statement made
orally or in writing about a pupil to a parent or other person is scrutinized
as to its truth and its value to the student.
Reporting to parents
The purpose of reporting to parents is to provide them with specific
information about the learning and development of their children.
Comprehensive reporting provides information about pupil strengths as
well as areas that need further attention. Parents would like to see
improvements in the form of regular summaries of their child’s progress
against clear standards of achievement in a range of both academic and
non-academic aspects of schooling.
Reports to parents should provide a picture of their child's development,
over time. This aspect of the reporting process supports the development of
effective partnerships for learning between teachers, pupils and their
parents. To be effective, these partnerships must be based on trust and the
sharing of information to support continuity of pupil learning and growth.
This reporting process should be an ongoing and flexible process where
pupils, parents and teachers communicate regularly about pupil learning.
Such reporting can be as informal as ongoing feedback, a conversation
after school or could take the form of: formal interviews, written reports,
three way interviews, pupil led conferences, communication diaries and
pupil performances.
In reporting to parents, teachers communicate information on a pupil's
achievement and should also provide plans for the pupil's future learning
as well as clear advice on how parents can assist their child's learning. To
facilitate this, written reports must be in a form that parents can easily
understand and interpret.
Currently reports on achievement of pupils may include written reports at
end of a course/term/semester/year as well as parent/teacher interviews.
In both reporting modes the intention is to provide parents with
information about their child’s learning in a clear, accessible and timely
manner.
The written reports usually contain information on: the progress the pupil
has made over the relevant period and how well the pupil is progressing in
relation to what is expected against a standard or learning outcome.

216

The report should also include a plan for future learning over the next
reporting period supported by the teacher, pupil and parent. The plan
should include; reference to a pupil's current level of achievement in each
outcome, an indication of areas for future development, the effort required
for pupils to achieve the required standard in the outcome, a plan to
support the achievement of these learning outcomes and specific advice on
how parents can support and contribute to the implementation of the plan.
In as far as written reports parents want such reports to provide an honest
and fair assessment of their children’s progress in all learning areas.
Parents also appreciate if such reports:
• include information on each pupil’s achievement in relation to
curriculum standards and the achievement levels of other pupils;
• provide an interpretative comment on pupil performance and
constructive advice about how the pupil can improve in the future;
• advise parents on how well their children are developing in non-
academic areas, including their behaviour, attitude, communication,
social skills, and physical development and their achievements in other
relevant school activities such as sport, etc;
• are provided regularly and in a timely manner to enable parents to
respond to any emerging problems;
• are clearly worded in language that is readily understood by parents.
Reporting to parents often take the form of parent-teacher meetings held at
regular intervals during the year either at end of term/year or at end of the
course. These meetings are designed to provide an opportunity for all
parents to discuss the progress and learning of their children directly with
the teachers. These meetings are structured to include both the pupil and
the parents in order to encourage pupils to take responsibility for their
learning. Parents usually make appointments and are well–structured
where parents are given the opportunity to discuss key information about
their children’s learning.
During the meeting parents, teachers and the pupil have the opportunity to
discuss concrete examples of the pupil’s work and to discuss such work
with each other. In the end all three parties come to an agreement on the
current level of achievement of the pupil as well as what the pupil has yet
to achieve in time for the next meeting. Agreement is also reached on how
the pupil’s future progress will be supported by the teacher, parents and
the pupil.
As indicated in section 7.1, collecting information on the performance of
pupils has little value if such information does not benefit the pupils. It is
unlikely that pupils will benefit from such information if the message
contained in the information is not reported back to them so they are able
to use the information to help improve their learning. Teachers should also
be able to use the information to improve their teaching. Knowing the

217

specific areas of weaknesses of pupils allows teachers to focus their
attention on addressing such specific areas in their teaching.
It is mandatory that the data collected and recorded on the achievements
of pupils are reported to all stakeholders as they are necessary for the
betterment of pupils learning and improvement in the effectiveness of the
school. Reporting on the achievement of pupils therefore serves different
purposes depending on the needs of different key stakeholders.
The purpose of reporting to parents is to provide information about the
learning and development of their children. Parents should also be able to
use the information to decide how best can they support the education of
their children but only if they have access to such information.
Comprehensive reporting provides information about pupil strengths and
areas that need further attention as well as advice on how to support a
pupil’s next stage of learning. Parents would like to receive regular
feedback on the progress of their children against clear standards of
achievement in a range of academic and non-academic aspects of
schooling.
The school should also be in a position to use such information to help
make the school more effective in addressing the needs of its pupils by
mobilizing its limited resources to target identified areas of weaknesses. It
can also use the information to seek the support from the authorities, from
parents as well as other key stakeholders. It is therefore the continual
responsibility of the school to report to parents information about the
progress of their children.
Reporting should focus positively on pupils’ progress and indicate ways to
improve performance and overcome difficulties. It is important therefore
that everyone involved in the education of children understands that
reporting pupils’ progress contributes to the growth and development of the
whole person.
Reporting provides clear information for future choices for all parties
involved. Reporting enables the particular gifts and talents of pupils to be
recorded; it traces the growth of independent learning, the creative insights
and the development of the pupil's sense of responsibility for learning. It is
a support for parents who are leading their children to responsible
adulthood.
Schools are required and are responsible for reporting to parents on their
children’s achievements at least once during the school year. The key
consideration is what to report to parents. Some of the information that is
usually reported to parents include;
• brief particulars of child’s achievements in all key learning areas as
well as other activities forming part of the school curriculum;
• comments on general progress of the child;
• attendance record of the child during the term/year providing the
number of possible attendances as well as unauthorised absences

218


arrangements for discussing the report between the teacher, parents
and the child;

the results of any national assessments taken during the term or
year;
Figure 7.5.1 shows a sample of an end of year report for a Year 4 pupil (Pita
E Black) in the key learning areas of Literacy and Numeracy.
Key Learning Areas
Rating
Year
Year
Year Year Year Year
(KLA)
1
2
3
4
5
6
Reading
C
Writing
A
Literacy
Speaking
D
Listening
D
Numeration
A
Ordering
C
Numeracy Operations
A
Geometry
B
Measurement
E
Work Habits
Needs Help
Satisfactory
Very good
Excellent
Effort
Behaviour

Figure 7.5.1
Ratings:







Legend:
A Well above the standard expected at this time of year
Your child's achievement this year
B Above the standard expected at this time of year
The expected level of achievement
C At the standard expected at this time of year
D Below the standard expected at this time of year
E Well below the standard expected at this time of year
219

Pita Black


Year
4
End
of
Year


What has Pita Achieved?

In literacy Pita continues to show outstanding writing skills well above what is

expected. His choice of words is excellent. In comparison he is on target with his
reading and can explain the key ideas in whatever he reads. However he appears
to be having difficulty expressing himself and does not concentrate and listen to
what the teacher says.

In numeracy Pita is progressing well and has excellent grasp of the number
concept and is well above the required standard in the four basic operations.
However he is having difficulty understanding basic geometry concepts especially
shapes and is performing below expectation. Pita appears to have no
comprehension of measurements and cannot relate instruments such as ruler to
length, cup to volume, etc.


Areas for improvement


In reading Pita needs to continue to improve his reading by consistently reading
everyday text and summarising key ideas in what he reads. He needs to practice
his speaking ability by involving more in oral discussions as well as oral
presentation in class. Pita also needs to concentrate more in class so he is able to
clearly hear what the teacher says.

In numeracy, Pita needs to work more with different shapes so he shows basic
properties of different shapes especially number and length of sides as well as

associating different shapes with names. Pita needs to seek help with
measurements especially relating different instruments to measurements and use
of instruments for measurements of everyday objects such as ruler and measuring
tapes and heights of objects, scales with mass of different objects, etc.



Pupil’s Comments

I have to listen to what the teacher says and stop talking to Paul when the teacher
talks. I am too shy to speak during class. When teacher ask me a question I know
the answer but too shy to speak.


I know I am weak in Geometry and using rulers and scales to measure. I only
interested in numbers and how to add, subtract, multiply and divide numbers but
nothing else in math.


Parent Comments
We are happy with how Pita has achieved so far this year. We know he has trouble
expressing himself and he is easily distracted and not very attentive in class and
we are trying to encourage him to speak out more.

We also know he is weak in some parts of the math but Pita tells us he does not
like those areas but we try to encourage him to do more work in those areas. We
are trying to get someone to help him especially with those areas he does not like

such as Geometry and Measurement.

220

Figures 7.5.2 shows a different example of reporting pupil’s achievements
E to parents. Here the report is at the middle of the year for Katie, a Grade 4
pupil, in the key learning areas of Reading, Writing and Mathematics. This
type of reporting not only provides information about the pupil but it also
indicates to parents how well their child has met the curriculum outcomes
in relation to predetermined standards or achievement levels (L0 to L4).
Pupil Information
Pupil Name:
Katie Moon
School Name:

Quality PS
Grade:

4


Name of Teacher:
Papa Joe
Areas reported: 1. Reading 2. Writing 3. Mathematics
Date of report: 30 June 2005
Parent Name:

Mere Moon

Y

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n
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o
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u
o

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li
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C
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e
R

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t
l
Key Learning
Achievement Level
Area
L0
L1
L2
L3
L4
Reading



Writing



Mathematics



The square box indicates the level achieved by the pupil in each of the three key
learning areas of Reading, Writing and Mathematics.
Figure 7.5.2
Key:
L0 -
Pupil has not demonstrated any evidence of the required knowledge
and skills.
L1
-
Pupil has demonstrated some of the required knowledge and skills


but in limited ways. Well below expected level of achievement at time


of reporting.
L2
-
Pupil demonstrated good command of some of the required


knowledge and skills at the expected level at time of reporting
L3
-
Pupil demonstrated most of the required knowledge and skills.


Above the expected level at time of reporting.
L4
-
Pupil demonstrated the required knowledge and skills. Well above


the expected level at time of reporting.
221

E Figure 7.5.3 shows another method of reporting on pupil’s progress by
focusing on learning outcomes. For each key learning area or skill teachers
need to clearly indicate all the learning outcomes pupils are expected to
have achieved. As it is common for pupils to show achievements at
different levels for different learning outcomes, teachers need to be familiar
with what pupils are expected to achieve at each level (grade) in any
learning outcome.
Based on the results in Figure 7.5.3, the teacher could make the following
about Lam’s achievement in Addition to be part of a report to parents and
other stakeholders.
Teacher’s comments
Lam is showing outstanding addition skills in all of the four skill lines. He has
achieved all of the learning outcomes expected at the end of Year 4 but has also
achieved the learning outcomes for addition of whole numbers, decimals and
fractions expected at the end of Year 5. He has also shown that he has achieved
the learning outcome for decomposing numbers expected at the end of Year 4 but
has also achieved the learning outcome for Years 5 and 6.








222

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Sub-Strand ‘Addition’ (Skill-lines)
numbers
statement
1. Decompose
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3. Add decimals
4. Add fractions
5. Complete
223




7.6 Helping those needing help



Who needs help?

Some of the key questions teachers often ask themselves are; who needs
help? What specific help does each of my pupils need? The answer to these
questions is not as straight forward as it seems.

In a system that has an outcomes-based curriculum and where the focus
on teaching and learning is on pupil’s achievement of the learning
outcomes, it makes sense to use the learning outcomes as the basis for
determining those needing help and what specific help each pupil needs.

For a teacher to be able to help her pupils, she needs to be able to find out
which of the pupils need extra help by first identifying those who have not
fully achieved the learning outcomes. As the teachers’ purpose in teaching
is to ensure that pupils fully achieve each of the learning outcomes, it
would be true to say therefore that any pupil who has not fully achieved
any of the learning outcomes needs help.

In the earlier parts of this module we discussed what teachers need to do
to find out who has ‘achieved’ or ‘not achieved’ any of the learning
outcomes. First, teachers need to be able to identify all the learning
outcomes pupils are expected to achieve from the objectives (unpacking
objectives). Teachers then need to develop instruments that they would use
to collect information that would enable them to identify the extent to
which each of the pupils has achieved the learning outcomes, that is,
pupil’s achievement level.

For teachers to be able to decide who has ‘achieved’ and who has ‘not
achieved’ or who ‘needs help’, they need to be able to develop achievement
levels that are relevant to each of the learning outcomes. This has been
covered in sufficient details in the earlier parts of this module.

The question of who needs help is a crucial one in as far as teaching is
concerned. However teachers in many countries in the region tend to focus
teaching more on the requirements of the various assessments that are in
place in their respective countries than on the needs of the pupil. This has
often resulted in teachers not making serious effort to find out the pupils
that need help.

As to the question of who needs help, one can say that any pupil who has
not fully achieved the learning outcome being addressed needs help. But as
discussed in the earlier parts of the module, pupils’ achievement in a class
can all be fitted into an achievement continuum ranging from the lowest
achievement level expected (0% proficiency) to the highest level expected
(100% proficiency). So any pupil who has not achieved the highest level of
achievement expect for any learning outcome is said to need help although

224

those achieving close to the lowest level needs more help than those
achieving close to the highest level expected.

Figure 7.6.1
gives a simple strategy that teachers may adopt in trying to
identify those needing help.



















Curriculum Objective(s)


to be Monitored





Identify Learning


Outcome(s) to be

monitored






Design

Design
parallel

appropriate
pupil

pupil
activities &

activities &
assessment

assessment






Proceed to

next

outcome(s)

Administer
Administer






parallel activity
& assessment
activity

(during/after
& assessment

corrective
(during/after

instructions
teaching)








Carry out

corrective
instructions

No Yes
Learning


Outcome

achieved?


All learning outcomes achieved




Achieved


outcomes
Figure 7.6.1: A proposed strategy for monitoring pupil achievements in learning
outcomes in a course in the classroom situation


225

Consider the examples given in Figures 7.3.3. and 7.3.4 on Lam’s
achievements in ‘Grammar’ in Language and ‘Addition’ in Mathematics at
the end of Year 4. As indicated in the records, it is clear that Lam does not
need help in addition as he has ‘fully achieved all that he is expected to
achieve in addition at the end of Year 4. Based on the evidence Lam has
shown, he is achieving well above the level expected in all aspects of
‘Addition’ by the end of Year 4. However based on the evidence he has
provided it appears that Lam needs help in various areas of Grammar. For
the area of Grammar Lam has shown that he needs help in; identifying
parts, verb tenses, use of adjectives and sentence completion.

The information provided through the pupil’s achievements in the learning
outcomes takes us to the first step in trying to help pupils improve their
learning. Having identified those who needs help is only the beginning of
the process. It is one thing to be able to identify those who needs help but
it is totally another to determine what help each pupil needs. As seen from
Figure 7.3.3 Lam needs help in several areas of Grammar but it would not
be effective to then devise a one strategy fits all for those who needs help.
This is because different pupils need different kinds of help. Even a pupil
needs different kinds of help in different aspects of a learning outcome.

As seen from Lam’s performance in Grammar, he needs the most help in
the use of adjectives and the least help in identifying parts. So a teacher
needs to strategically devise a strategy for helping pupils, and that is not
an easy task.

What help do pupils need?

In the earlier section we looked at how to identify pupils that need help by
monitoring their achievements in the learning outcomes. We have also seen
in the case of Lam that even within a specified area of learning a pupil will
need different kinds of help depending on their achievements in the various
learning outcomes. The question of what help do pupils need should be
carefully considered. We have also discussed in this module the role that
feed-back can play in making pupils aware of their weaknesses and where
they need to put more effort in order for them to achieve the learning
outcomes.

The question of what help do pupils need is the most crucial question
teachers need to be able to answer if they are to improve the effectiveness
of their teaching by helping pupils improve their learning. While monitoring
the achievements of pupils allow teachers to identify the specific
weaknesses of each pupil, it also provides the opportunity for them devise
a strategy for helping pupils.

In Chapter 6 we saw how pupils’ progress in the various learning outcomes
could be monitored by developing appropriate achievement levels that are
closely linked to the learning outcomes. These achievement levels then
form the basis for monitoring pupil’s progress. It also provides the basis for
developing a strategy for helping those who have not ‘fully achieved’ the
learning outcome(s).


226

Monitoring pupil’s progress in any learning outcome using carefully
developed achievement levels that cover the whole continuum provides
the platform for teachers to devise specific strategies for helping pupils.
It is a reality in most classroom situations that many of the pupils will
not ‘fully achieve’ the learning outcomes the teacher intends to teach. It
is also a reality that of those who do not achieve the learning outcomes
will show different levels of achievements some achieving at the lowest
level while others achieving at higher levels further up the continuum.

Take for example the situation outlined in Figures 7.6.2. and 7.6.3. Figure
E 7.6.2 shows the achievement levels a teacher has developed to monitor her
pupils’ achievement in problem solving in a mathematics course for Grade
4. Figure 7.6.3 shows the actual achievement of her pupils at the end of
the lesson.

Learning
Level 5
Level 4
Level 3
Level 2
Level 1
Level 0
Outcome

Solve simple Solve simple Solve
Solve
Solve
Cannot

word
problems
simple
simple
simple
solve
Solve simple
problems
involving
word
word
word
simple
problems
involving +, single
problems problems
problems problems
involving
-, ÷, x and operations
involving
involving + involving
involving
+, -, x, ÷ & combination of +, _, x, +, -, and and - only. + or - any of the
combinations
of + and – and ÷ and a either x
only.
operations.
with either combination or ÷ only,


x or ÷.
of + and -


Figure 7.6.2: Achievement levels for monitoring Grade 4 achievements in
‘Problem
Solving’
using
operations.


Achievements in Problem Solving at end of Grade 4
20
18
15
16
i
l
s

14
12
12
f
Pup

10
r
o

8
e
8
b
6
6
m
6
u
N

3
4
2
0
L5
L4
L3
L2
L1
L0
Achievement Level


Figure 7.6.3. Actual Achievement of ‘Ocean Primary School’ on Solving simple
problems
involving
operations.


227

As seen from Figure 7.6.3 only a small number (3) of the fifty pupils in the
class actually ‘fully achieved’ the learning outcome while most are
achieving at lower levels. In most cases teachers would note the pupils’
achievements and move on. While providing this information to pupils as
feedback may help, that would not solve the problem. However if teachers
really want to improve the effectiveness of their teaching, and help their
pupils improve, they need to do something about those achieving at L4 or
below as they need help if they are to be able to solve simple problems
using the various operations.

The information provided in Figure 7.6.2 provides the guidelines teachers
need in order to design the kind of intervention that pupils need. From
experience teachers should be able to develop the achievement levels for a
learning outcome as part of her planning for teaching. This means that
teachers should also be able to use the achievement levels to prepare a
strategy for helping her pupils who have not fully achieved the learning
outcome, that is, those achieving at Level 4 or lower. Several situations
exist for the teacher to address.

Situation 1: Those whose achievements are similar to that expected of L0,
that is, those who cannot solve simple problems involving any of
the operations.


A possible strategy for the teacher is to prepare a parallel version of the
whole lesson together with the assessment as those in this level are those
who have not shown any of what is asked for in the learning outcome. A
parallel lesson is one targeting the same skills in the same learning
outcome but using different content or context. This ensures that the 6
pupils at level 0 don’t get bored of being taught the same content again.

Situation 2: Those who show that they can only solve simple problems

involving either + or -, that is, Level 1.

Knowing what the 15 pupils at this level are able to do, the teacher is in a
position to prepare interventions and assessments that focus on what is
required for Level 2 to Level 5.

Situation 3: Those who show that they are able to solve simple word
problems involving +, -, and either x or ÷, that is, Level 2.

In preparing interventions for those in this group, at least the teacher do
not have to include those areas that pupils are able to do and focus on
those yet to be achieved. The teacher may wish to differentiate between
those who are able to solve problems involving x from those involving ÷ so
that separate interventions and assessments can be prepared.

Situation 4; Those who are able to solve simple problems involving single
operations of +, -, x, and ÷ and a combination of + and -, that is,
Level 3.


228

For those at this level, the teacher can only focus on interventions and
assessment that target problems involving combinations of + and – with
either x or ÷.

Situation 5; Those who are able to solve simple problems involving single
operations of +, _, x, and ÷ and a combination of + and -, that is,
Level 4.


For those at this level of achievements, the only aspect they have yet to
achieve is solving problems involving combinations of + and – with both x
and ÷. The teacher’s interventions and assessment therefore should focus
only on this aspect of the learning outcome.

How would the teacher organize the class?

As a teacher you may wonder on how to handle a class with all these
different situations. A classroom facing these situations calls for initiative
on the part of the teacher. One such initiative is to organize the class into
groups based on their achievements. This means that the teacher may
wish to organize the class into four or five groups based on the various
situations. The teacher may wish to organize those who have fully achieved
the learning outcome the first time into one group and those in Level 0 and
Level 1 into one group and those in Levels 2, 3 and 4 into one group each,
a total of five groups as follows;

Group 1: L0 and L1
Group 2: Level 2
Group 3: Level 3
Group 4: Level 4
Group 5: Level 5

For each group, the intervention strategy outlined above could then be
used except for those in Group 5 who have fully achieved the learning
outcome the first time. For those in group 5, the teacher has a choice of
allowing these pupils to proceed to the learning outcomes at the next grade
but in the same skill lines. Alternatively the teacher may allow the pupils
in the group to proceed to the additional aspects of the learning outcome in
the skills ladder.

These arrangements allow for pupils in a class to be grouped into different
ability groups according to their achievements in the numerous learning
outcomes. This avoids pupils being in the same group throughout but
allowing for pupils to move from one group to another depending on their
achievements.

An alternative strategy would see those in group 5 helping out as mentors
for those in groups 3 and 4 thus allowing the teacher to focus on the rest.
The down side of this is that those in group 5 would be deprived of the
opportunity to move ahead either along the skills line or the skills ladder.

229

The strategy outlined in the example above could be used by teachers of
any subject in trying to help their pupils, especially those who are
struggling to achieve the learning outcomes, improve their learning. While
a one on one strategy between the teacher and each pupil would be ideal, it
is unlikely that teachers would be able to cope especially in situations with
large class sizes.
Providing a strategy for helping pupils especially those needing help is a
crucial part of planning a lesson and teachers should consider it as
mandatory if they are to improve the effectiveness of their teaching. The
long hours teachers spend trying to help pupils would have very little
impact on pupils’ learning if they do not provide the help they need.
Achieving the various learning outcomes is the target of teachers and
therefore they should take every measure to ensure that their pupils
have a chance of achieving the learning outcomes. It is only then that
teachers can be sure that their teaching has been effective and not on
the hours they spend trying to teach.












230

Summary



Throughout this module, “Are our pupils learning? How do we know?” the
focus has been on how teachers can take advantage of the opportunities in
the classroom, and the information available, to improve their teaching and
hence their pupils’ learning. To achieve this, teachers must first ensure
that the environment where the learning takes place is conducive for
teachers so they are better able to teach their pupils so they acquire the
knowledge and skills expected. Pupils also need to know where they are in
relation to what is expected of them. It is therefore the role of the teacher to
make sure that pupils are aware of where they stand.

While teachers are expected to do so much with so little, the reality is that
most teachers today need to be in a position where they are able to help
their pupils achieve what is expected of them. To achieve this teachers not
only need to have the necessary qualifications but also the competency so
they can provide the appropriate help to their pupils. Unless teachers know
their students well and are knowledgeable about their achievements, they
cannot be confident that their teaching meets the learning needs of their
students.

With the increasing complexity in our communities much more are
expected of our children and teachers need to be in a position to guide
pupils in their learning so they possess the basic skills they need to
become useful members of their community. Literacy and numeracy are
key basic life skills that every pupil needs as it not only open doors and
opportunities, but are necessary if pupils are to be successful in further
studies in other areas.

But with the limited resources available, the education authorities in many
of our countries in the Pacific are under pressure to ensure that teachers
possess the appropriate academic qualifications to become a “qualified
teacher” as well as the competency to become a “competent teacher”.

It is our hope that this module; “Are our pupils Learning? How do we
know?” will help you who are currently teaching improve the way you
teach and hence have positive impact on the learning of your pupils. We
are also hopeful that teacher training institutions throughout the region
will see a need to incorporate some if not all of the issues covered in the
module into their teacher training curriculum so that student teachers
will be in a position to acquire the relevant and appropriate skills that
they are expected to possess once they are in the classroom.

We are hopeful that the content of this module would become part of the
teacher in-service training programme of every country in the region as they
endeavour to improve the competency and effectiveness of their teachers
and hence the overall quality of the education they provide to their pupils
and those pupils will benefit from such programmes.




231


Glossary of Terms



Glossary of Terms

Ability
The present or potential capacity of a pupil to perform a
task or to use skills, including ones that are intellectual
and physical.


Achievement
A particular level in the development of a pupil towards
Level
a learning outcome; where the top level is the learning
outcome.


Accountability
The responsibility for implementing a process or
procedure, for justifying decisions made, and for results
or outcomes produced. Teachers are often said to be
accountable for their students' learning in the assigned
subject area, within the limits of the students' abilities
and the time and resources available.

Accuracy
The degree to which the data and information collected
about the performance of a pupil are precise and
correct measures of performance are free from error.

Affective
The range of feelings and emotions including interests,
Domain
attitudes, motivations, values, and appreciations.

Aggregating
The combining of two or more related scores into one
total score.

Assessment
The process of collecting evidence and making a
judgement about student achievements.

Attainment
Similar to an achievement level but used to describe the
Level
level at the end of the learning process


Authentic
An assessment approach that has been designed to
Assessment
provide a realistic task, simulation, or problem related
to that attribute or performance being measured.

Behaviour
The actions of the pupil, teacher or others, that are
specific and observable.

Benchmark
A referenced behaviour for comparing observed
performance of pupils or teachers at a given level.

232



An instrument that specifies criteria or indicators of

merit on which the assessor or evaluator marks the
Checklist
presence or absence of the attributes or teaching
behaviours being assessed.

Class-centred
A description which focuses on a class of pupils rather
than on an individual pupil.


Competency
Similar to an achievement level, but usually refers to a
Level
stage in development towards command of a practical
skill.


Cognitive
The range of knowledge and knowledge-related skills
Domain
needed for learners to achieve different types of
instructional objectives. These range from perception to
knowledge of facts and acquisition of skills to higher-
order inference

Comparability
The similarity of phenomena (e.g., attributes,
performances, assessments, data sources) being
examined. The amount or degree of comparability is
often used to determine the appropriateness of using
one phenomenon in lieu of another and to help ensure
fairness.

Competence
A teacher's repertoire of competencies.

Competency
A knowledge, skill, ability, personal quality, experience,
(Teaching)
or other characteristic that is applicable to the
profession of teaching.

Context
The environment within which the teacher works. This
(Teaching)
includes, but is not limited to, physical facilities and
setting, types of students, school and community
characteristics, resource availability (staff, materials,
equipment, funding, time), classroom climate, school
climate, degree of support provided by others, and
demands made on the teacher.

Course
The book that presents the syllabus for a particular
document
subject, highlighting the objectives of the course, in
terms of knowledge and other skills.


Diagnosis
The process of determining a pupils strengths and
weaknesses, based on the results of the assessments
used in the evaluation. Diagnosis is an essential
preliminary to preparing interventions for a pupil or a
plan of assistance in cases where remediation is
needed.


233

Effective
Those teaching practices that lead to desirable results
Teaching
such as pupil learning as measured by standardized
tests.

Error of
The difference between a teacher's obtained score and
Measurement
his/her true score on an assessment that is due to
factors beyond the control of that teacher, including
lack of reliability in the assessment instrument or
process, variability of settings of the assessment,
limited sampling of pupil performance, bias of the
assessment , rater effects, and interactions among such
factors.

Exemplar
An example of work that demonstrates a particular level
of achievement by a pupil.


Evaluation
The systematic process of determining the merit, value,
and worth of someone (the evaluee, such as a pupil) or
something (the evaluand, such as a product, program,
policy, procedure, or process).

Evidence
The documentation and verbal statements by credible
witnesses (e.g., pupils, peers, teacher, principal)
concerning the knowledge, skills, abilities, and
behaviours of a pupil. Evidence is used both to generate
and to justify judgments about a pupil's performance
for purposes of evaluation.

Excellence
A quality or state of high or superior performance, or of
having virtues and values surpassing most others.

Expectation
The anticipated performance of a pupil. The
performance of a pupil can be affected by the
expectations that the teacher has for the pupil being
assessed. If the teacher has high expectations for the
pupil being assessed, there is an increased likelihood of
the pupil performing at a higher level than he/she
might otherwise; holding low expectations for a pupil
can reduce performance levels. Sometimes the opposite
impact can occur. Too high expectations can undermine
a pupil's confidence, while too low expectations can
impel the pupil to strive for greater performance.

Feedback
Information that a teacher receives from a pupil, or
advisory information a pupil receives from a teacher,
based upon pupil work and previous communication
between the two.


Feed-forward
Steps taken by the teacher to prepare pupils for course
skills yet to be taught.



234

Formative
An evaluation conducted primarily for the purpose of
Evaluation
improving the pupil through identifying the pupil's
strengths and weaknesses.

Judgment
An appraisal, decision, or opinion about the

performance level of a pupil with respect to the

knowledge, skill, ability, behaviour, or attribute being

assessed.


Learning
A description of what a pupil knows, or what a pupil
outcome
can do, when an objective has been met. The products
of instruction or exposure to new knowledge or skills.
Examples include the mastery of a new skill or
successful completion of teaching resulting in pupils
acquiring the knowledge or skill.


Objective
A description of what a pupil is aiming for in terms of
either knowledge or skill. The pre-specified intended
outcomes of a program, process, or policy. In the case
of education, these are usually in the form of learning
and behavioural objectives for pupils Objectives tend to
be more specific than goals.


Prescription
Those parts of a course document that describe how the
course is to be assessed.


Professionalism A reform movement to promote teaching as a profession
(Teacher)
with its own knowledge base, licensure structure,
standards for practice, and professional functions.

Proficiency
Sufficient expertise in a knowledge area or adequate
mastery of a skill with regard to a standard.

Profile
A representation of a pupil's performance on a number
of attributes, measures, or dimensions that use the
same scale.

Progress Record A format for recording the progress of a pupil towards a
particular learning outcome or set of learning
outcomes. The record shows the levels of achievement
for the learning outcome.


Pupil-centred
A description that focuses on a particular pupil rather
than on a group of pupils.


Qualifier
A condition attached to a course objective which defines
the scope of the objective.


Record of
A format for recording the success of a pupil in meeting
Achievement
learning outcomes and course objectives.

235



Relevance
The extent to which the domains and indicators covered
(Domain)
by a pupil assessment system apply to a pupil's
learning in terms of both importance and expectations.

Resources
All those materials that support teachers and pupils in
their learning through engagement with a particular
course.


Strand
A sequence of learning outcomes from one year to the
next which represents the development of one
particular part of a course.


Summative
An assessment conducted at the end of teaching
Assessment
primarily for the purpose of making personnel decisions
about the pupil.
Syllabus
The portion of a course document that lists the topics
and skills to be taught and learnt.


Teacher
The attribute of a teacher who has the capability or
Effectiveness
potential of having a positive impact on student
learning, behaviour, and attitudes.

Unpack
The process of looking inside course objectives in order
to identify the learning outcomes; also the process of
identifying the various simple actions inside the
complex verb of an objective.




.






236


Document Outline



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last updated Sat Sep 01, 2012