Acknowledgements The initiative to develop the module was a response by the UNESCO Office for the Pacific States towards addressing the serious situation of teacher competency in its member states. It would not have been possible without the financial support from the United Kingdom Development for International Development (DFID), Government of Japan and Australia through AusAID. The contribution of the South Pacific Board for Educational Assessment, who was willing to assist on a consultancy basis, to the development of the module is acknowledged. Their willingness to go into partnership with the UNESCO Office for the Pacific States in the implementation of the module not only to teacher training institutions but also to teachers in general is generally appreciated. The positive support given by the Ministries of Education as well as teachers in the region throughout the implementation of the module is also acknowledged. Special acknowledgement goes to the Vanuatu Ministry of Education especially the Vanuatu Teachers College, Zone Curriculum Advisors, and Provincial Education Officers in all six provinces in Vanuatu for their contributions made during the development of the module. From the UNESCO Office for the Pacific States and the South Pacific Board for Educational Assessment, we hope that the module, “Are Our Pupils Learning? How Do We Know?” would assist in some way in all efforts to improve the quality of teaching and learning in each one of the Pacific island nations. ii Content Page Chapter One. Introduction 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Teacher Competencies 3 1.3 Competency-based Approach 7 Chapter Two. Setting the platform 2.1 Setting the platform for learning 9 2.2 Do you know your pupils? 12 2.3 Creating the right classroom environment 16 2.4 How familiar are you with the course document? 24 2.5 Objectives and pupil learning outcomes 28 2.6 From Objectives to learning outcomes 31 2.7 Unpacking objectives 36 2.8 Skill levels 46 2.9 Achievement levels 51 2.10 Course presentation 55 2.11 Basic skills; literacy and numeracy 57 Chapter Three. Planning for teaching or learning 3.1 Planning for teaching; where do we start? 59 3.2 Framing a lesson plan 61 3.3 Description of a lesson plan format 64 3.4 Preparing sound lesson plans 67 3.5 Classroom – a place where mistakes are useful 69 3.6 Exemplars – models for learning 71 3.7 Available resources 74 3.8 Feed forward – preparation for learning 76 Chapter Four. Knowing your stuff 4.1 Knowing what to teach 78 4.2 Preparing a format for learning outcomes 84 4.3 “Writing” – A sample strand 93 4.4 Matching questions to learning outcomes 99 4.5 Samples from different courses 108 4.5.1 Sample materials for a Language course 108 4.5.2 Sample materials for Mathematics course 112 4.5.3 Sample materials for a Social Science course 119 4.5.4 Sample material for a Science course 124 Chapter Five. Developing pupil activities 5.1 Developing activities that promote learning 129 5.2 Formal classroom activities 135 5.2.1 Problem solving 136 5.2.2 Graphing – Pie and Bar charts 139 5.2.3 Calculations 144 iii 5.2.4 Comprehension passage 146 5.2.5 Making hypothesis 151 5.2.6 Investigation report 153 5.2.7 Performances 156 5.3 Informal activities 159 5.3.1 Observing your pupils 161 5.3.2 Questioning 166 Chapter Six. Monitoring pupil achievements 6.1 Monitoring achievements 170 6.2 Linking achievements to learning outcomes 174 6.3 Providing feedback 179 6.4 Promoting progress 183 Chapter Seven. Records, Recording and Reporting 7.1 Records and recording 186 7.2 Record of achievements 193 7.3 Progress records 205 7.4 Portfolios 210 7.5 Reporting achievements 215 7.6 Helping those needing help 224 Summary 231 Glossary of terms 232 iv Chapter One 1.1 Introduction With the increasing call for improving the quality of basic education in developing and least developed countries, the level of competency of teachers has been identified as crucial in any effort to improving education quality. This is certainly the case in the Pacific region. The development of this module, focusing on improving the competency of teachers, is a response not only to the global effort to improve education quality, which is central to the achievement of Education for All (EFA), but also to the realization by Pacific Education Ministers, through the Form Basic Education Action Plan (FBEAP), of the important role teachers play in improving the quality of education in the region. With a significant number of untrained teachers in the various countries in the region, their competency as teachers is a serious matter. This problem is compounded by the lack of focus by teacher training institutions in the region on the competency of teachers in their training programme. Expectations of teachers from all sectors are high. They are expected to be experts in one or more specific subjects, thus demanding a minimum level of academic qualifications. On top of that they are also expected to continually update their expertise and knowledge in order to provide pupils with the knowledge and skills they need to be able to cope with the increasingly complex community they live in. Moreover, they are also expected to develop teaching and pedagogical competence to be able to effectively pass on the appropriate knowledge and skills to pupils. This demands not only qualified but also highly competent teachers, something that is still very much a challenge to many of the teachers in the region. As professionals, teachers are expected to be able to respond to an increasing range of societal demands, but how are they able to cope with such expectations? Unfortunately the increasing expectations on teachers are often accompanied by fewer resources as well as increasing class sizes thus making it a huge challenge for many teachers. Because of this, teachers are at risk of becoming casualties of the situation rather than becoming catalysts of change throughout the teaching/learning process. In order for countries to meet the ever changing and increasing demands on teachers throughout the 21st century, the authorities in the various countries need to foster a well qualified, well-equipped and motivated teaching force. Recent educational reforms in numerous countries throughout the region, as a response to increasing call for better quality education for all have put pressure especially on least developed and developing nations, to focus their efforts and resources on improving pupils’ educational outcomes, in order to ensure that pupils acquire the knowledge and skills they need to continue learning throughout life. 1 These high demands on teachers need to be carefully taken into consideration especially when a significant proportion of the teaching force do not have the qualifications and competency to carry out their expected roles successfully. The discrepancies are most notable in many of the countries in the Pacific region. Comparing the requirements for becoming a “qualified teacher” with the actual level of qualifications of existing teaching forces provides an indication of the efforts which countries will need to make in order to bring all their teachers up to the level of today’s standards. In situations where a significant proportion of the teaching force do not meet the minimum academic standard required, in-service training and teacher upgrading are crucial. While the focus in many countries in the Pacific are still on the pre-service training of teachers, the need for in- service upgrading, updating and renewal of knowledge, skills and capabilities of serving teachers is now widely acknowledged as a high priority. And with the pace of change both in content and pedagogy, continual updating of knowledge and skills of teachers is required. In- service training should therefore be an essential component of the career development of teachers in all countries. The teacher issue in many countries in the region is not only one of numbers, it is also one of appropriate training and competency to teach effectively. According to UNESCO (2004), a large proportion of primary school teachers in many developing countries including the Pacific lack the necessary academic qualifications, training and mastery of content. In the Pacific the proportion varies considerably with the situation in the Cook Is, Fiji, Niue, Samoa and Tonga where most of the primary school teachers have gone through formal teacher training compared to other countries where a significant proportion of the teachers do not possess the necessary qualifications let alone the necessary skills to be a “competent or a professional teacher”. The main focus of this module is not the academic qualifications of teachers as it assumes that teachers are familiar with the pedagogy. The focus however is on the level of competency of teachers and their ability to use the appropriate and relevant methods to gather information that would enable them to monitor what each pupil is able to do and in particular what they are not able to do so that they can be given the specific help they need. Gathering information on pupil achievement in relation to expectations is only half of the story. Being able to use such information effectively to enhance the teaching and hence pupils’ learning is far more important. Efforts to gather the relevant information would go to waste if the information is not used to achieve the purpose for which it was collected. 2 1.2 Teacher Competencies There is increasing recognition of the role of teachers in improving the functioning of education systems and ensuring positive learning outcomes. But do government policies consistently reflect this awareness? How do they help teachers promote excellence and thus influence (improve) the levels of learning achievement of pupils? Expectations of teachers from all sectors are high. They are expected to be experts in one or more specific subjects, thus demanding a minimum level of academic qualifications. In addition, teachers are also expected to continually update their expertise and knowledge in order to provide pupils with the knowledge and skills they need to be able to cope with the increasingly complex community they live in. Moreover, they are also expected to develop teaching and pedagogical competence to be able to effectively pass on the appropriate knowledge and skills to pupils. This demands not only qualified but also highly competent teachers, something that is still very much a challenge to many of the teachers in the region. Every teacher teaching in a school, whether trained or not, is expected to possess, or work towards possessing, key competencies and skills which are recognised nationally as crucial for the achievement of the overall quality of education in a country. Expectations and reality however are two different things as many of those operating as teachers in the classroom in many of our countries haven’t had the opportunity to acquire the appropriate skills and competencies. With teachers playing a vital role in the education process, it is important that they possess at least some, if not all, of the competencies and skills necessary for teaching. These competencies and skills are often included as part of the overall policies of a school or education authority and form the basis for the recruitment of teachers. They are also used as the basis for identifying shortcomings of teachers in an effort to identify areas for improvement for incorporation into in-service training programmes. Some of the competencies and skills necessary for teachers, especially new teachers and student teachers, may include: • subject matter • communication and approaches to teaching and learning • classroom organisation and management • assessment of pupil achievements against learning outcomes • values, attributes and abilities integral to teachers • whole school and national issues Subject matter knowledge To be able to fulfil their roles successfully, every teacher is expected to be able to demonstrate a sound knowledge of, and practical skills in, the subject or subjects forming the content of his/her teaching, at a level which allows him/her to stimulate and challenge pupils, and to recognise 3 and address barriers to pupils' learning specific to the subject being taught. At the same time the teacher should be able to play a key role in developing pupils' skills in literacy and/or numeracy and be able to use ICT and appreciate how to apply it effectively in the teaching and learning process. In addition to the knowledge of the subject matter, teachers are required to be able to put together teaching programmes and lessons which would ensure continuity and progression in every pupil's learning. This would require every teacher to have knowledge of the learning process, curriculum issues as well as child development. Communication and approaches to teaching and learning One of the key competencies in teaching is the ability to be able to communicate sensitively with every pupil in such a way that not only motivates and sustains the interest of all pupils in the class, but encourages the development of good rapport between the teacher and all the pupils in the class. Good communication means the teacher is able to use language that is appropriate to the pupils in terms of their age, level of development, gender, ethnic and socio-economic background as well as individual pupil’s learning styles and needs. To be effective, teachers need to be able to explain to and communicate with every pupil clearly and in a stimulating manner and able to question pupils effectively, and able to respond to their questions and support their contribution to any discussion that takes place. They should also be able to employ a range of teaching strategies and methodologies to reinforce and extend work in class in an effort to use strategies that are appropriate to the subject, topic and needs of the pupils. Being able to select and use in a considered way, and in a number of different learning and teaching situations, a wide variety of appropriate resources is part of what teachers are required to possess as well as being able to demonstrate the ability to teach individuals, groups and the class. This involves being able to set expectations and pace of work which make appropriate demands on all pupils and ensure that the more able and less able pupils are effectively challenged. Teachers need to be able to identify and respond appropriately to those pupils with learning difficulties and devise strategies, or seek assistance if necessary, to cater for their specific educational needs. Effective communication skills also require teachers to be able to respond appropriately to cultural, gender, linguistic, religious and social differences amongst pupils especially those from minority or vulnerable groups. Encouraging pupils to take initiatives in, and become responsible for their own learning is a desirable skill that teachers need to be able to communicate effectively with their pupils. Classroom organisation and management Teachers, both new and experienced, are expected to be able to organise classes and lessons to ensure that all pupils are productively employed when working individually, in groups or as a class as part of learning activities. This involves the ability to demonstrate knowledge about, and to 4 apply, the principles and practices which underlie good discipline and which promote positive behaviour among pupils. Effective classroom organisation and management involves creating and maintaining a stimulating, purposeful, orderly and safe learning environment for all pupils so that their behaviours are fairly, sensitively and consistently managed throughout the lesson by using appropriate rewards (both positive and negative). Good classroom organisation and management enables teachers to deal effectively, by means of relevant and appropriate strategies, with classroom or school issues such as bullying, etc and are able to evaluate and justify their actions especially when managing the behaviour of pupils. Assessment One of the competencies that is crucial for all teachers in the classroom, and is the focus of this module, relates to teachers’ ability to collect and use information that would enable them to decide on the progress and achievements of pupils. Unfortunately this is one of the competencies that is either neglected or not given enough attention both in the teacher pre- service as well as in the teacher in-service training programmes, yet every teacher is expected to be able to carry out this role. Teachers who have acquired this competency are expected to be able to demonstrate an understanding of the principles of assessment and the different kinds of assessment which one may use. Further, they should be able to develop simple instruments to assess the achievement of each pupil in line with school assessment policies and against national standards as well as being able to use assessment information to monitor, record and report on pupils’ achievements, needs and progress. More importantly they should be able to use results of assessment to identify pupil’s strengths and weaknesses and to provide regular constructive feedback to each pupil as well as identifying appropriate strategies for addressing pupils’ weaknesses. They should be in a position to use the results of the assessment to evaluate the effectiveness of their teaching and to determine how to improve on their teaching. Understanding School and national issues Teachers to be effective in their job need to demonstrate an understanding of school policies and procedures as well as an understanding of the national education system. They also need to demonstrate understanding of the way roles and responsibilities are shared among staff in the school and how to obtain help especially from staff within the school, including those with responsibility for the curriculum, guidance, etc. Teachers need to be able to demonstrate an awareness of their responsibilities for contributing to the ethos of the school and promoting positive relationships among staff, parents and pupils. Teachers also need to be able to report to parents about the progress of their pupils and discuss matters related to their personal and social development in a sensitive and constructive way. They are also expected to have an understanding of the way roles and responsibilities are shared among staff and how to obtain help from staff within the school, including 5 those with responsibility for the curriculum, guidance, learning support and staff development and are willing and able to contribute to the extra- curricular life of the school. The values, attributes and abilities integral to teachers Teachers are expected to be committed to and enthusiastic about teaching as a profession and be able to encourage pupils to become learners and be committed to promoting pupils’ achievements and raising their expectations of themselves and others, in collaboration with colleagues and parents. Teachers as professionals are also expected to also value and promote the moral and spiritual well-being of the pupils and self-evaluate the quality of their teaching and to set and achieve targets for professional development and exercise sound judgement in making decisions. They should also value and promote equality of opportunity and fairness and adopt non-discriminatory practices, in respect of age, disability, gender, race or religion and show commitment to undertaking continuing professional development in order to keep up-to-date with and respond to changes in education. 6 1.3 Competency-Based Approach In many of the countries in our region emphasis on the quality of teachers has been on qualifications with many countries focusing on improving the proportion of teachers meeting the minimum teaching qualification. So much so that in some countries, meeting the minimum qualification is considered as synonymous with quality. The proportion of teachers meeting the minimum qualifications becomes an important indicator of the quality of education in a country. However, acquiring the minimum qualification is no guarantee that quality would improve. Researches have shown that although meeting the minimum qualification is important, the educational background of teachers also play a key role and that pupils tend to learn more from teachers with strong rather than weak academic skills (Ballou, 1996; Ferguson and Ladd, 1996). Some however argue that it is the performance of teachers in the classroom that make the difference. Let us consider the specific situation in mathematics and the competencies teachers need to successfully teach the subject. Studies have found that in mathematics, as in most other subjects, the teacher’s knowledge and ability are crucial. The issue of teacher knowledge as it occurs in the context of the classroom is important and includes the interactive and dynamic nature of teacher knowledge of the content of mathematics, knowledge of pedagogy, knowledge of ability and level of achievement of pupils and teachers’ beliefs. Shulman (1988) proposed that a teacher’s knowledge and ability should include; knowledge of a particular subject, knowledge of common teaching ability, knowledge of pupil’ backgrounds (such as pupil’s learning ability, age, etc.) and knowledge of the teaching environment (including social, political and cultural aspects). These are crucial information that not only teachers need to be aware of, but in particular teacher trainers so as to ensure that they form part of the teacher training programmes. In addition to the above, other dimensions considered as crucial aspects especially for teacher training include: • teacher’s teaching skills and competencies, • ability to organize and present materials effectively during teaching, • the learning environment created between students and teachers and • the teacher’s teaching attitudes. The issue of teacher competency has become one of the areas of concern in efforts to improve the quality of teaching and hence education quality. Despite the general reservations some may have towards competency- based approaches to teaching, teachers especially beginning teachers, view teaching competency as crucial. They consider teaching competency as 7 providing a link between personal attributes (such as knowledge, values and dispositions etc) and effective professional practice and performance. Focus on teaching competencies is useful in that it provides a common framework for collaboration between teacher trainers, education authorities and student teachers. It could facilitate common understandings of intended outcomes and appropriate activities, tasks and processes. It could also provide a framework for in-service training programmes for serving teachers as well as one for assessing student teacher performance. What each of these potential applications points to is the role of a competency-based approach as an integrating mechanism that brings together the development of attributes (knowledge, values, dispositions etc) and effective professional practice. The difficult task for teacher educators has always been to develop attributes in such a way that they contribute directly to effective practice. Experience has shown that practising teachers have difficulty drawing on the 'theoretical' aspects of the course in their daily practice. Often this is reflected in teachers' dissatisfaction with pre-service courses. A competency-based approach makes it clear that knowledge on its own is not enough and (equally important) practice must draw from that knowledge (and other attributes) to be truly effective. The major implication of such an approach is that the practicum must be powerfully integrated with the rest of the course - not only with the curriculum and instruction units. In particular, it must be integrated with the foundation and discipline subjects. A competency-based approach, therefore, has the potential for developing coherence and focus in teacher education courses. The focus on teaching competencies by no means provide a solution to all the problems confronted by teacher education and the limitations inherent in them needs to be recognised. Focus on competencies is not only considered as non-inclusive (Smith, 1994) but represent a particular view of teachers' work and the teaching profession. It tends to focus on new teachers rather than on the career needs of the teacher as a professional. While beginning teachers cannot be expected to develop competencies that require sustained autonomous practice, they must be able to work towards that goal during their career. Competencies highlight the importance of attributes such as knowledge and values but they in no way address the issue of how beginning teachers are best provided with access to the knowledge base of teaching. Who, for example, should provide beginning teachers with an understanding of the subject knowledge that underpins the school curriculum? While the need for subject knowledge is undisputed, but how they get such knowledge is a matter of considerable contestation. Teaching competencies therefore are by no means a simple template for course development and implementation. They are however tools that seem to have some potential to assist teacher trainers in training teachers and student teachers in their effort to be better equipped for the task. They could provide potential to raise broader issues about their application to initial teacher education in general. They appear to have the potential to contribute positively towards improving the quality of teaching but they will by no means be the only way of addressing the concerns about the competencies of teachers. 8 Chapter Two 2.1 Setting the platform for learning Imagine that a boat at its home port is scheduled to make a journey that takes it to several islands as it makes its way to pick up both cargo and people. The boat has a captain who is also the navigator, and a crew eagerly looking forward to the journey. Before the journey can begin there is a lot of planning and preparation that has to be done. The boat has to be seaworthy and carrying all the resources it needs for the journey. The captain is responsible for making sure that everything is in place before the journey can begin. Of course, if the captain is careless the boat could leave port without some of the important work having been done, and this could lead to problems during the journey. The captain is in charge of the boat and crew, and if the journey is to be successful, the captain needs to know the boat and crew very well. The captain also needs to know what each of the crew is suppose to do. The crew members will have different strengths and weaknesses, but for the smooth running of the boat, the captain will have to make sure that everyone works together. The captain too may have weaknesses when working with the crew. They may not always understand exactly what he is trying to say, and they may misunderstand what they are required to do. Or they may not do the required work in the most appropriate way. If the captain is smart, the weaknesses can be corrected, so that both the captain and the crew benefit. It may be that the crew members are new to the boat, and if so, the captain will need time to discover their strengths and weaknesses. If the captain is alert, crew weaknesses will be noticed and a little well directed advice will help to reduce weakness and increase strengths. Even the crew members with strengths can be encouraged to help the weaker members and in this way the whole boat benefits, and the journey becomes smoother and more efficient. Of course each crew member needs to know exactly what is expected to be done, and the captain will spend time, before each part of the journey, making sure that the crew knows where they are heading and what job has to be done to get there. The captain as navigator will set the course, and will take the boat with its crew along that course. As the boat proceeds, the captain will be continually checking to see that the boat is on the correct course. To do this, navigation tools such as compass, sextant and charts will provide information about the boat’s progress. Currents, winds, rough weather may cause the boat to move 9 away from the intended course, and the navigation tools will tell the captain how far off course the boat has traveled, and where the boat with its crew is now positioned. With this information, the captain can plot a path that will return the boat to the correct course. Certain parts of the journey may be more difficult than others. There may be big swells and winds that make things difficult for the crew. The deck may become slippery, and the boat may pitch and toss from side to side. A crew member may fall and break a leg, requiring special treatment in order to recover. It may even happen that someone falls overboard and needs to be rescued (though this would not happen if the captain ensured that all crew members were protected by safety netting). It would be a very cold hearted captain that left someone in the water and carried on without them!! As the boat proceeds it will successfully reach, in turn, each port along the route to its home port. Hopefully all the crew members will have enjoyed the journey; they will have learnt new skills, will have overcome difficulties, will have contributed to a healthy atmosphere on the boat, and will be looking forward to the next journey. Hopefully the captain will look back on the journey and feel that there had been good preparation, that the course plotted served progress well, that appropriate changes had been made to ease the passage, and that the captaincy had brought the best out of the crew members. Of course in this setting of a sea journey we see a parallel with the role of a classroom teacher with a classroom full of children who are embarking on a journey of their own. The teacher, who is our captain, has the same responsibilities of planning and traveling a journey; and the children who are our crew are taking that journey. Notice that our children are not passengers, but are crew members contributing to a successful journey. The material to be taught is our course, and our ports of call are the objectives to be reached. The techniques to be used for monitoring and assisting progress are the navigational tools that the teacher needs. Without such tools it would be difficult for the teacher not only to monitor his/her pupils’ progress but also to help with those who need the teacher’s help. It is the hope of all teachers that the pupils in their care are learning. But it would be a big mistake to rely on ‘hope’. Instead of saying “I hope the pupils in my class are learning”, it would be better for you to be able to say “I know for sure my pupils are learning”. There is a big difference between ‘hope’ and ‘certainty’. The teacher needs to find ways and means whereby she can be certain that her pupils are learning what they are expected to learn. “Setting the Platform” is a crucial first step in ensuring that you do everything needed to allow the best possible chance for your classroom to be an environment in which pupils want to learn. It is the responsibility of 10 the school, especially the teacher, to ensure that the pupils see the classroom as such and not a place of refuge where they spend most of their day. At first sight, there is no obvious link between ‘knowing the name of a pupil’, and the improved chance of that pupil learning when in your classroom. But knowing a pupil, recognizing a pupil, is just one small part of the learning environment that you are providing. This section on ‘Setting the Platform’ is intended to draw attention to the various ways you as the teacher can prepare your learning environment into an environment where each of your pupils feel ripe for learning. Here are some key points to help you focus: • The quality of learning is related to the quality of teaching. Therefore improving the teaching will likely improve pupil’s learning. • Pupils learn best if they are clear about what they are expected to learn. You therefore need to make clear to the pupils what the learning outcomes are. • Pupils benefit from feedback on their progress towards meeting the learning outcomes if they receive it early and often. • Your teaching will benefit if you receive feedback on class progress, as this will allow you to modify your teaching to correct weaknesses that become evident from feedback. • Encouraging pupils to be involved in finding out how well they learn can stimulate interest in, and ownership of, their progress. Virtually teachers have little to no control over the number of pupils in the class. However, they do have control over the environment in which they carry out their teaching, that is, the classroom. This is very important, since the environment they create would affect how well pupils in the class learn. Imagine the first day of school and you are a new teacher in the school. You have been assigned a class of 30 pupils most of whom you do not know. After the initial shock, or maybe in response to it, what questions might you ask yourself? Most likely the first question that would come to mind is “What do I do first?” “What would be a good starting point?” These questions highlight some of the critical aspects of working with pupils, that is, the question of managing the classroom’s environment so that pupils feel at ease and motivated to learn. The classroom environment encompasses the physical environment, including learning resources for lessons, as well as the psycho-social environment; for instance, using ways to promote learning. The teacher’s ability to create well- managed physical and psycho-social environments can make the difference between a conducive classroom environment and a classroom in chaos. Often teachers find themselves in poor learning setting that provides challenges for both the teacher and the pupils. As a teacher you will need all of your ingenuity and planning skills to create a classroom environment that is a comfortable place for pupils to learn. The classroom is often called a “learning community” and is that place in the school where you and your pupils can be found regularly, and one in which teacher and pupils alike work together to learn new things. This module will explore the use of navigational tools, and it is hoped that what you find in this module will help you, the teacher, to organize, deliver and adapt your teaching in such a way that it provides support which can lead to an improvement of learning by pupils. 11 2.2 Do you know your pupils? When you meet your pupils for the first time, you would probably know one or two of the pupils but if you are lucky you might know many of them. As the weeks go by, you will come to know more and more of your pupils although it might take more than you expect to know all of them. However the time it takes teachers to know their pupils depends on the effort the teacher makes to know “Who is who in your class”. Getting to know your pupils is the first step in allowing you to teach them effectively, as developing a relationship with each pupil provides a communication route that can be helpful to both of you. During the first two or three days of the new school year teachers usually conduct “getting to know your pupils” activities in an effort to learn pupil names, to collect information about each pupil’s family background and interests, and at times assess each pupil’s knowledge and skills through diagnostic testing. Getting to know each pupil requires a bit of effort, particularly in the first few weeks, but the effort is worthwhile. Although it may seem trivial, learning your pupils’ names is the first step in creating a comfortable classroom that will encourage pupil’s involvement in the learning process. Addressing your pupils by their name indicates to your pupils that you care about them and that you are interested in each one of them. Fortunately, there are many simple ways for learning pupils’ names and getting to know them. If you are an experienced teacher you will know that the pupils who are noisy, confident, cheeky, funny or naughty are the ones whose names you first learn. But the pupils who are naturally quiet or shy may be overlooked while the others receive attention. It is important that you make an effort to get to know all your pupils as soon as possible, otherwise the more boisterous confident group will receive and perhaps demand your attention at the expense of the quieter and often less confident class members. As time passes, and you make no effort to address the situation, it may become worse, as these pupils realize that you do not know them or you are ignoring them, and worst of all that you do not care about them. They see that you ask Fred or Hannah questions, but never ask them. If you continue to ignore these pupils they will soon feel isolated and develop barriers around them. As a teacher you should make sure that such a situation does not develop in your class, and if it does you should make the effort to resolve it before it gets out of control. You should become embarrassed about such a situation because the only way to speak to David, the quiet boy at the end of the row, is to point at him and ask the question, or, describe him not by name but by the place he is sitting, such as; “The boy at the end of the front row, how would you ……” 12 So what can you do to speed up the process of getting to know your pupils? There are several ways you can use to speed up the process. One way would be to get the pupils to make name cards that they either place in front of them or wear during class, or have a piece of card standing up on the desk in front of them carrying their names. Before class, and during it, learn the names of pupils sitting along the aisles and call on them in class by name. Progressively work your way to the centre of the room, calling each pupil by name. This is good because it not only allows you to learn their name, but it also allows other pupils in the class to learn each other’s names. Conducting interactive “getting to know you” activities during the first two or three days of the school year to allow not only you to know your pupils but also for pupils to learn about each other would help you in getting you started especially if you a new teacher. You may use name games where the game begins with a pupil giving his/her name. The second pupil gives the name of the first person and his own name and the third student gives his/her name and the names of the first two pupils. The chain continues until it returns to the first person with the teacher preferably near the end. Another “getting to know you” activity involves getting pupils to stand and introduce themselves, one by one. Then divide the class into quarters and get each quarter to try to remember the names of the other class members. This will get the members of each quarter working together to see how many they get right. Design an activity that ensures every one in the class has the chance to speak, e.g. introducing them and saying where they come from and who they are. For example, all pupils and the teacher form a circle. The teacher then moves to the centre and says his or her name. The teacher rejoins the circle and the pupil to the left goes to the centre and says his or her name, followed by the name of the teacher. The pupil rejoins the circle, and the next pupil moves to the centre. This is repeated until all pupils have given their name to the class. Alternatively you could group pupils for pictures during the first or second day of class. Posing for a picture often creates an informal, relaxed environment. Pass the photographs around and have pupils write their names next to their picture, or number each pupil and have them write their names at the bottom of the photograph next to their number. If photographs are not possible, have them draw pictures of themselves, or put them in pairs and have them draw their partner. Encourage them to draw something unique about their partner, such as a missing tooth or curly hair, to help match pictures to faces. Add their names to the pictures, and place the pictures near where they sit. If it is not possible to put the pictures near the pupils, for the first week or two of school have your pupils sit in rows, if they are not doing so already (you can break them into learning groups later). Line up their pictures vertically on the wall next to each row, with the top picture being the pupil nearest the wall, and the bottom picture being the pupil furthest from the wall. 13 A typical seating plan - group John Mary Peter Teresa Tom Michael Susan Tim David Lucy Roland Lily Simon Kalo Fatu Bill Willy Kate Lote Wicky Kalip Amos Malia Lam Teacher Figure 2.2.3 Other seating arrangements together with seating plans may be devised to suit the shape of your classroom, and the size of your class. 15 2.3 Creating the right classroom environment Making sure that pupils feel ready to learn is one of the biggest challenge teachers face, especially if it is their first year teaching. All you have been taught at teacher training institutions become useless if you cannot connect with your pupils. You need to be able to create such environment that would allow you to connect with your pupils while at the same time able to manage your class effectively. Make your pupils feel welcome in your classroom by making the effort to learn about their backgrounds and interests. This will help you build a sense of community and also can improve instructions. When you know your pupils, you have a better understanding of their specific needs, learning preferences and styles, relevant prior experience, and practical issues that will play a role in the class. One way to get to know your pupils is to make an effort to find out about their prior to current experiences. This gives you a chance to acknowledge what each of your pupils already knows and to emphasize what is of particular interests to them. As you start your first day of class, encourage your pupils to talk about themselves and their background, their hopes or concerns for the class. Ask them how they learn best. Encourage pupils in your class to share their backgrounds with each other. Invite older pupils to share experiences that may help younger pupils appreciate working with those who are different. Try to help older pupils understand what skills or abilities younger pupils bring to the classroom as well. The task could be made easier if you as the teacher are able to create the right classroom environment where pupils feel motivated to learn not only from you but from each other. Getting to know each of your pupils both as a person and as a learner helps you determine what and how to teach. Observe your pupils interact with each other, and talk to them about their interests. By doing this, you can begin to gather the information you need to build a preliminary instructional plan. Here are some ideas that might help you learn more about your pupils: • Review any portfolios that contain work from previous years. • Check for literacy and numeracy competency by having pupils take a literacy and numeracy test. • Ask them to write about a topic of their choice as an initial writing sample. • Have your pupils to work on an activity in small groups and observe how they work together. • Use any baseline data on literacy and numeracy to determine the proficiency level of each pupil in both literacy and numeracy. • Use proficiency level to identify areas of strengths and weaknesses in literacy and numeracy. 16 • Devise a strategy for addressing areas of weaknesses identified in both literacy and numeracy. Getting to know your pupils go a long way so is allowing your pupils to trust you and to develop a warm relationship between you as the teacher and each of your pupils. Unfortunately teachers often give disproportionate amount of their attention to misbehaviour, rather than to appropriate behaviour. By acknowledging appropriate behaviour, pupils who deserve the recognition and attention get its. At the same time recognising good behaviour teaches pupils how to behave by providing them with opportunities to witness good behaviour. It also minimizes the negative effects that punishment can have and makes classroom more positive and more conducive to learning. It is recommended that this strategy be used frequently throughout the school day as a regular classroom management tool. Teachers need to be aware of what a conducive classroom environment is. We are talking not only about the physical environment but also the emotional environments that will play a role in the instructional setting. After all, a teacher is only as good as the learning environment he or she can create. How many times have you been part of a classroom where you knew the instruction was brilliant, but the teacher just couldn’t engage the pupils or create an interesting lesson? We have all been in that situation. Creating a positive learning environment and being able to design effective lesson plans is the foundation for effective pupil learning. Teachers need to understand the importance of the interaction between them and their pupils and the impact that their behavior and decisions about instruction have on their pupils’ success. In simpler terms, the classroom environment that a teacher creates can have a significant impact on the achievement of his/her pupils. For a new teacher, this can be difficult to conceptualize. Often new teachers tend to occupy themselves with lesson planning, grading assignments, and worrying whether pupils understand what they have been taught as well as pupils’ perceptions of them that they often miss the bigger picture. But the more they gain experience and become effective, the focus tend to shift to the more important issues; the pupils and creating an environment in which they could learn. Teachers need to realize that the classroom is a dynamic and complex entity with each pupil bringing in a lifetime of ideas and experiences in and out of school. Despite the presence of variables beyond their control, teachers need to commit themselves to establishing a harmonious classroom community in which pupils can feel safe to participate freely, sharing unique opinions and perspectives. 17 To create an environment conducive for learning, teachers may want to consider the following as guidelines; • creating and maintaining a learning community in which individual differences and strengths are respected. • analyzing the classroom environment and making decisions and adjustments to enhance social relationships, pupil motivation and engagement, and productive work. • creating and maintaining a smoothly functioning learning community in which pupils assume responsibility for themselves and one another • promoting dispositional thinking routines in the classroom. • establishing clear standards of conduct for all pupils. • organizing, allocating, and managing time, space, activities, and attention to provide active and equitable engagement of all pupils in productive tasks. Like teachers, pupils also have their own expectations on their first day in school. On the first day, pupils expect and want their teacher to be confident, kind, and competent. Once this is established, they can move to other things. What are the rules in the classroom? What will I be doing this year? How will I be graded? Who is the teacher as a person? Will the teacher treat me as a human being? Will the teacher respect me and understand my culture, background, and needs? Pupils need to feel safe both in the school and the classroom environment. They will learn better if they feel welcome and important in the classroom. It is up to the teacher to make sure that the emotional needs of their pupils in the classroom are met. This means carefully considering the details of the physical environment and its effects on the emotional culture of the classroom. Pupils tend to mirror their teacher’s behavior. Since this is so, it is important for teachers to treat their pupils with the same type of respect and courtesy that they would expect their pupils to show to them. Saying “please” and “thank you,” calling pupils by name, choosing not to use a sarcastic tone, etc., are all ways to show pupils how to respect each other and the teacher. Courteous behavior may not be common in a pupil’s home and this may increase the challenge of teaching courteous behavior. This however makes the task that much more important and challenging. Teachers need to remember that everything they do makes a statement that affects the emotional environment of their classroom. Pupils take their cues from their teachers. If teachers allow such behaviour as teasing, disrespectful and unkind behavior between classmates, pupils would take such behaviour as acceptable. Stopping such behavior immediately sends the message that it will not be tolerated and once pupils realize that the classroom is a safe place, their minds are free to learn what the teacher teaches. Putting in place procedures and routines for the classroom are key components of good classroom management. The teacher needs to be clear about how her classroom will be organized and what procedures and 18 routines are necessary. Classroom management is often associated with classroom discipline or class control. Procedures are the heart of an organized classroom. A procedure is what the teacher wants done. A routine is what the pupils do automatically. Procedures are the beginnings of routines in the classrooms. We all want to have classrooms that run efficiently. Teachers who have well defined and understood procedures rarely have any discipline problems. These teachers’ classrooms seem to run on their own. In fact, they do. Pupils know what to do and how to do it because the teacher has explicitly taught each procedure. The procedure is practiced and practiced until it becomes a routine. It becomes the way tasks are accomplished. Before the first day of school, teachers should take time to determine the procedures that organize the classroom environment. These procedures can be as simple as entering the room or as complex as what their options for work are when they have completed the main assignment. Teachers are encouraged to plan these procedures in advance in explicit detail. Classroom management and organization run more smoothly if pupils are given the opportunity to learn the classroom procedures through direct instruction rather than through trial and error. The teachers need to take time to introduce and teach these procedures to pupils. Make a list of your procedures and then sort them by importance. Which ones do you have to teach in the first five minutes of the day, within the first hour, within the first day, within the first week, or within the first month? Sorting your procedures this way is important so that you don’t overwhelm your pupils. They need to absorb the information and begin the process of moving from procedure to routine. Effective discipline is evident in classrooms that have set procedures. When pupils are able to self-monitor their behaviours, they are able to address the learning issues at any level. However they need to have a firm, set plan for discipline. Although procedures are necessary for effective discipline, there is a difference between a discipline plan and procedures. While discipline is concerned with how pupils behave, procedures are concerned with how things are done. Discipline has penalties and rewards while procedures have no penalties or rewards. Pupils need to know exactly what is expected. They must know what proper behavior/action is and is not. This requires time and role-playing during the first weeks of school. These role-playing experiences should be specific and teach a certain procedure. Procedures take time to teach, but you will regain the time during the year. You will not have to stop instruction in order to handle procedural concerns. Once you are past the first two weeks of school, your pupils will move from procedure to routine. Gaining and maintaining pupil’s attention throughout a lesson or creating a respectful environment would be more appropriate way teachers should focus on in considering conducive classroom setting. Teachers may believe that to be an effective teacher is to keep the class orderly and have complete classroom control. While this may still be the case, it is far important to be able to actively motivate and engage pupils, and to have 19 them understand the material, concept, or idea being presented in positive and supportive learning environment. Teachers’ disposition and attitude towards their pupils and to teaching are critical factors in designing a well-organized, positive, supportive, and well- managed classroom conducive to learning. Additionally, if teachers do not have the respect of their pupils and if they cannot gain and maintain their attention, it will not be possible teach the lesson effectively. Respect comes from giving respect and providing an atmosphere of respect for others. Are you prepared and organized? Pupils can easily tell if a teacher is prepared or not. If teachers are not prepared, they are sending a strong message that they do not have respect for the pupils. Teachers should make themselves available for one-on-one discussion with their pupils and should view themselves as a positive force in the classroom. They should respect differences among pupils and promote fairness in all activities in the classroom. The design of effective classroom management strategies and incorporation of them in daily planning are the best techniques for preventing disruption and management problems. However an effective teacher does recognize the fact that sometimes no matter what you do there will be a difficult pupil or situation that needs to be addressed. Classroom management is typically the most challenging aspect of teaching. Besides the methods discussed earlier in “getting to know you” activities, you may also be interested in using other ways to learn more about your pupils. Creating a profile of every pupil in your class not only help you know your pupils but also know about their background, what they like what they do not like, etc. This allows you to learn about your pupil’s lives outside of the classroom so that if learning problems arise, you are in a position to help your pupils as much as possible. You many consider preparing a simple questionnaire that asks your pupils about their families. They include questions on aspects that might affect a pupil’s learning and attendance in school, such as whether a pupil’s parents are still living or married and if they live in the same household or have migrated temporarily for work; who takes care of them if not the parents; how many persons are in the household; what is their relationship to the pupil; what are their education and occupational backgrounds. The information can be collected in several ways; by sending the questionnaire home to be filled out by parents or guardians or interviewing the pupils themselves. If a pupil has any learning difficulty you can consult the information from the questionnaires to identify possible causes and actions. Right from the beginning you are starting to develop a profile of every pupil in your class which would ultimately become a very useful database as well as a record of your pupils. By introducing yourself by name to your pupils and not simply as their “teacher”, you are showing them how much you want to know about them, as well as how much you want them to know about you. While it is not necessary to share very personal information with your pupils, including 20 information about yourself during the learning process can help personalize the learning environment and make your pupils feel at home. The process can begin on the first day when you are talking about what you expect your pupils to learn. Being humorous and showing your pupils that you can laugh with them helps in establishing a positive relationship with your pupils. Allowing your pupils to express themselves during the first two or three weeks of school will encourage them to participate in class discussions. Remember that the longer a pupil goes without speaking in class, the more difficult it will be for him or her to contribute, and you will lose a valuable opportunity to learn just what they have learned. You might want to have pupils work initially in small groups during the first few weeks of school because this may make it easier for shy students to later contribute in the class setting. Many pupils in your class are bound to be too shy or embarrassed, to ask questions or make comments in front of their peers. Some teachers actually do not like pupils to ask questions because they feel it threatens their authority. Questions, however, are a valuable means of getting feedback on what your pupils are learning, what they are having difficulty with, and how you can make your teaching more meaningful and enjoyable for you and your pupil. To encourage your pupils to ask questions or give their views about what they are learning helps in making your pupils feel part of the learning process and not bystanders. Pupils may not want to ask or answer questions because they are either shy or they fear of showing to others that they don’t understand the concept that you are teaching. In explaining a difficult concept or lesson, you might talk about the difficulties you had in learning it, and what methods you used to help learn and remember it. Before class, after you have finished preparing your lesson, ask yourself: “What might my pupils find hard to follow in this lesson? What examples might make that more understandable?” You might want to keep a diary of errors pupils are likely to make as a reminder of what pupils would most likely find most difficult to understand. It is in your interest as a teacher to try and encourage your pupils to ask questions or give their views about what they are learning. You may want to use “prompts” or statements or questions that your pupils are expected to respond to in terms of their experiences or what they have learned. “Who did you talk to on your way to school this morning?” “What time did you wake up this morning?” Prompts are meant to appeal to all your pupils’ interest and motivate them enough to be willing to respond. A prompt that appeals only to some of your pupils is likely to motivate them but not all of your pupils. Pupils may not want to answer questions because they fear showing others that they don’t understand the concept that you are teaching. They have not mastered it. So it is important that if you want your pupils to respond that you ask a question you know they know the answer to otherwise if they are not sure about the answer, they would not respond. 21 In general, the more approachable you are in terms of your manner and genuine interest in your pupils, the more likely they will feel comfortable in seeing you, in talking with you, and in listening to you in the classroom. You also need to make sure that both you and your pupils are able to function effectively in the classroom. You need to set certain rules so pupils know the limits, as well as how to behave with others and respect their rights. Involve your pupils in developing classroom rules! You might take a “rights-based” approach by starting with the principle that “you may do what you want in the classroom, unless what you do interferes with the rights of others, such as your classmates and your teacher.” Ask your pupils to identify what behaviours are acceptable and what behaviours are not acceptable because they violate the rights of others. Develop rules to fulfill these rights as well as penalties for violating them. Remember that penalties should be consistent with the nature of the misbehaviour and based on positive discipline to help your pupils to learn good behaviour. For instance, making a pupil stand in a corner facing the wall for breaking a glass teaches the student nothing. Having the pupils apologize for his or her action and clean up the mess teaches him or her responsibility. Violating rules by some pupils in the classroom is a normal part of learning no matter how hard you may try. It is a normal part of pupil’s development and not a reflection on your teaching. When pupils misbehave, a teacher may use corporal punishment as a way to control the situation. This excuse is common among classrooms in which there are no set rules or routines. The pupils do not know what is expected of them and the consequences for misbehaving. The teacher did not take the time to build a positive relationship with the pupils so they would want to be good. This may be due to his or her authoritative classroom management style, one that says, “I’m the teacher and we’ll do things my way!” In trying to maintain control, the teacher may also use corporal punishment to try and put fear into the hearts of the other pupils so they won’t misbehave as well. Using the threat of physical violence does not encourage pupils to learn from the teacher, only to fear him or her. It also destroys the classroom’s psycho-social environment. While corporal punishment is meant to control a pupil’s behaviour, positive discipline is meant to develop a pupil’s behaviour, especially in matters of conduct. Rather than corporal punishment, there are many positive discipline techniques that can be used. Following is a list of positive disciplinary actions that you can take to guide pupils whose misbehaviour is demanding attention. Catch them being good; praise them when they are not seeking attention and misbehaving. Ignore the behaviour when possible, giving the pupil positive attention during pleasant times. Many times teachers run out of patience and use corporal punishment when they are angry or frustrated. Yet, there are many positive ways to deal with anger and frustration. Some teachers share their frustration with their pupils in an attempt to help pupils understand what makes teachers frustrated. Some teachers use other methods but all are aimed at getting pupils to learn what not to do and why. They might do it again, and are 22 therefore expected to take responsibility for their actions and will have to deal with the consequences. Involving your pupils in managing the classroom also helps in developing the right environment. Appointing a class captain for a week with clear responsibilities would help send out the message to your pupils that it is their classroom too and not yours alone. Alternatively you may appoint a class assistant on a daily basis providing clear responsibilities. Pupils communicate better with each other than with their teacher so getting pupils involve in how you manage the classroom would help ease any tension between you as the teacher and your pupils. Decorating the room with pupils’ work will also help add to the attractiveness of the classroom and make it more welcoming. It is important to remember that what makes you feel comfortable may not be the same as what makes your pupils feel comfortable. At the beginning of the year, organize your classroom, and then ask your pupils if they are comfortable with it. Better yet, divide them into groups and ask each group to look around the room and its contents, and then to draw a picture of how they would like the room to be organized. Use ideas from their drawings to design your pupils’ “personal” classroom. Try the arrangement for one or two weeks, and then ask your pupils if they are comfortable with it. Change the classroom arrangement if they feel a new one would be more comfortable and change it whenever you sense that your pupils are becoming bored with sitting in the classroom. There will be times when you are making informal observations that provide clues to the progress being made by the pupils. These observations help to provide a picture of the progress of the pupil, and may help you to identify a particular strength or weakness. If you are confident of the pupil’s name you will be able to record your observation on a personal record card designed for that purpose. Much better than the embarrassment of having to ask the pupil what their name is. 23 2.4 How familiar are you with the course document? In most cases the subject that you are teaching will be represented inside the curriculum by a course document. This may be called a syllabus, or perhaps a prescription in some countries or even a curriculum document. Whatever it is called it has certain components that you need to be familiar with. But in principle, the course document tells you all about the important things that one needs to know about a course. Invariably the document will describe the overall aim(s) of the course which are broad statements of its purpose or intent. They encompass the purpose and philosophy of the course, specifying its overall direction and content. They let pupils know what they expect to be taught over a study period and what they may learn by taking the course. Course aims are typically identified in relation to the broad programme aims as well as their relationship to the aims of other courses within the programme. To write this component of the course document one needs to understand the role the course play in the overall curriculum. Also expected in the course document are the content areas of the subject to be taught, and will list the specific objectives associated with each of the content areas. The content will most probably be a combination of knowledge accumulation and skill development. The specific objectives describe the packages of content in such a way that they tell the teacher, and can also tell the pupil, what has to be achieved or more specifically what pupils are expected to be able to do. They are statements about what pupils are expected to be able to do, understand or to have learned by taking the course. They use concrete terms to specify and define the broad aims. They often refer to stages a learner must progress through in order to achieve the aims of the course. Course objectives need to be written in terms of pupil achievement and be related to the qualities or skills that each course significantly develops. They are therefore directly related to assessment tasks where the purpose of the assessment is to assess how well pupils have achieved the objectives of the course. Course objectives should cover knowledge (what new understandings, definitions or approaches pupils are expected to gain), skills, (what pupils will be able to do) and attitudes (how pupils’ beliefs or values will be shaped It is therefore essential that the current course document is in your possession and that you are familiar with the overall course aims Objectives content and what pupils are expected to achieve before you attempt to teach the course. Failing to do so would make it difficult for you to determine what knowledge and skills you should focus on in your teaching. Further your pupils would find it difficult to know what level of achievement is expected of them. 24 In many situations, the course document may provide a list of recommended text(s). Often teachers, especially those who are not familiar with the content, would use the text as the holy grail in their teaching. It is important for teachers to understand that these textbooks are resources to help them in their preparations, they are not meant to guide or worst still, to dictate what they teach and how they teach. Teaching the subject from a textbook without knowing the objectives of the course will not guarantee that the pupils will achieve the intended learning outcomes. Textbooks often provide series of exercises that pupils are expected to work through both in class and at home. Such exercises are often organized haphazardly and not in a developmental manner so there is no assurance that completing the exercises would guarantee that the pupil has achieved all of the learning outcomes. Teachers need to understand what the learning outcome expects and carefully select what pupils are ask to do in a textbook so that they provide useful evidence for the teacher to use. Otherwise they are in danger of allowing the textbooks to dictate what they teach and worse still dictating what and how pupil’s learn. If the course document is well constructed, the material to be taught will be clear, and the objectives will be specific enough to allow learning outcomes to be identified. This would allow you to focus on the learning outcomes in your teaching and for pupils to be aware of what they are expected to achieve. It also allows you to choose how you use the content of any recommended text as a supporting resource material but you dictate what you teach and how you teach so as to guarantee the achievement of the learning outcomes by pupils at the end. Often in the curriculum document the objectives are compound and vague thus making it difficult for the teacher to identify what is it that pupils are expected to achieve. This creates problem in assessing pupils’ achievement as it is not clear what exactly pupils are expected to be able to do if the objectives are not clear. In such instances the objectives need to be “unpacked” to a level of specificity where the teacher is clear of what pupils are expected to be able to do with what they have learned, that is, the learning outcomes. An objective reaches the required level of specificity when it is expressed in observable and measurable pupil behaviour that is pupil learning outcomes. Pupil learning outcomes are defined in terms of the knowledge, skills and abilities that pupils have attained as a result of their involvement in a particular set of educational experiences or course of study. They are statements that specify what you want your pupils to know and be able to do at the end of the course. They are usually expressed as knowledge, skills or attitudes. Learning outcomes need to be specific enough to be meaningful for instructional and assessment practices. They must also be up-to-date and accurately reflect the shared understandings of those teaching the course and that the behaviour we expect pupils to show as evidence of what they have achieved in relation to the learning outcomes must be observable and measurable. 25 Besides helping teachers to tell pupils precisely what is expected of them, learning outcomes also; • help pupils learn more effectively and are able to know where they stand relative to what they are expected to do. • make it clear what pupils can hope to gain from following a particular course study. • help teachers to design and plan their teaching more effectively. • help teachers select the appropriate teaching strategy that would enhance the chance of pupils achieving what they are expected to achieve. It obviously makes sense to match the intended learning outcome to the teaching strategy. • help teachers with informing their pupils what a particular activity is designed to achieve. • assist in designing tasks that would be used to assess the level achieved by pupils in relation to what is expected. • ensure that appropriate assessment strategies are employed. Perhaps at this point it is necessary to make a distinction between objectives and learning outcomes to avoid any misconception. Table S2.i provides an attempt to distinguish between the two concepts. Learning outcomes build upon, but are different from, course objectives and goals because they represent a new perspective. The differences between an objective and a learning outcome are important especially in trying to assess pupils’ achievement. Objectives Outcomes represent valuable skills, tools, or represent overarching products of content (nuts and bolts) that enable the course. a pupil to engage a particular subject. focus on content and skills express higher level thinking skills important within the course; what that integrate the content and the teacher will teach. Often termed activities and can be observed as a the input in the course. behaviour, skill, or discrete useable knowledge upon completing the class. can often be numerous, specific, and is an end product that can be detailed. Assessing and reporting on displayed or observed and each objective for each pupil may be measured against criteria. impossible. Figure 2.4.1 Consider the following example of an objective, “By the end of Year 6 pupils should be able to make and play a musical instrument”. While this objective may look straight forward on first glance, it is a compound objective in several respects. First we need to be clear on what musical instrument we want as it could mean any musical instrument. Then there is the part on being able to play the instrument. Does it refer to 26 being able to play a few notes, a scale, a song or any song? To be able to identify the learning outcome the objective needs to be unpacked. The unpacked objective might give you the following specific learning outcomes; - “the pupil is able to make a simple flute” - “the pupil is able to play a scale on a simple flute” These learning outcomes are extremely important, as they provide you and your pupils with the precise goal that is to be achieved when learning has been successful. Examples are printed in italics throughout this book. Before you start to teach a particular portion of your course, the specific learning outcomes need to be available. They need to be available not only for you to use in your planning and in your teaching but they also need to be available for your pupils to use in monitoring and assessing their own learning. If the learning outcomes for each objective are not clearly stated in the course document, then someone has to unpack the objectives so that the learning outcomes are available. This is a task for you as the teacher, but if you are not in a position to unpack, then it could well be a task for the curriculum developers. However, part of this module would focus on how to unpack course objectives to ensure that the learning outcomes are clearly stated. However, consider the following when trying to identify learning outcomes; • think of what you expect your pupils to be able to do or to know before you start teaching. • now think of your pupils after your class, and decide what they should now be able to do as a result of your teaching. • always try to use action verbs in trying to state your intended outcome. • try writing them down and then ask some of your pupils whether they know what was expected of them. A list of these action verbs are given in the next section 2.5. Giving pupils the ‘specific learning outcome statements’ is one way of ensuring they know in advance what they are aiming for in their learning. Imagine the routine of shopping. If you go to the shop armed with a list of ‘objectives’ you are more likely to come away with what was important, than if you simply look around the shop and pick up what ever takes your fancy. If the course document does not go beyond providing specific objectives, then it is profitable to involve the pupils in translating the objectives into learning outcomes. The discussion that surrounds this exercise is valuable as it makes pupils aware of the learning outcomes as well as giving them a feeling of being part of the whole process. Involving pupils has the potential of transforming pupils from passive into active learners. The result of this change is that there is an added dimension to their involvement in learning; a dimension that suggests “I now know what I am going to learn”. 27 2.5 Objectives and pupil learning outcomes The course document is the source of all the objectives in which the content and skills are described. It is important that you recognize and understand the level of specificity found in an objective as this would allow you to determine whether the objective needs unpacking or not. If the objective is vague and unclear it needs to be unpacked in order to identify the specific learning outcomes. If on the other hand they are specific enough for you to be able to observe pupils’ behaviour and measure such behaviour, then there is no need for unpacking. Consider each of the situations illustrated below; 1. If I say; “Look at a person” 2. If I say; “Look at a woman” specificity is increasing 3. If I say; “Look at Mary” Figure 2.5.1 As you move from number 1 to number 3 the command becomes more specific. The first situation tells you to look at “a person” which could be anybody you want. The second situation is a bit more specific as it tells you not to look at anybody as in situation 1 but to look at a woman. The third situation tells you to look at a particular woman named Mary. The level of specificity can lie anywhere from “most general” as in situation 1 to “most specific” as in situation 3. The various scenarios can be easily demonstrated in the following examples. 1. Least specific objective “Pupils should be able to appreciate the power of mathematics in solving problems.” This objective is very general because there are many features of mathematics used in the solving of problems, and pupils may meet some of these features and not others. There is no attempt to explain what problems might be solved, nor the level of mathematics that must be used to do the solving. Furthermore, the word, “appreciate”, calls on a skill that is impossible to measure. In fact, is it a skill at all? - I appreciate you coming to see me - When my teacher helps me I appreciate it - I appreciate that Helen plays the guitar better than Fred 2. More specific “Pupils should be able to understand and use the four operations and correct order of operations with whole numbers in both calculations and everyday problems”. 28 This objective is still very broad as it covers many possible skills. But the introduction of the word “use” means that the implied skills can be measured, though the use of the word “understand” provides many different questions that would be needed to check all the learning outcomes that are implied. 3. Yet more specific “Pupils should be able to multiply any two 2-digit whole numbers” This objective now stands at the level of a specific learning outcome, and a simple question can soon establish if the objective has been achieved or not. For example; Multiply 32 by 29 An answer of 928 indicates that the pupil has almost certainly achieved this learning outcome, as the same process would be used for any other pair of 2-digit numbers. 4. Too specific “Pupils should be able to multiply 32 by 29” This objective is too specific, as it means that many (in fact more than 400) other objectives would be needed simply to cover the learning outcomes for all 2-digit numbers multiplied together. When objectives become too specific as in this situation, they illustrate a particular activity in a broader objective and focus on a particular situation. In such case, they illustrate a particular level of achievement in a broader learning outcome. The specific objective phrased as; “Pupils should be able to multiply any two 2-digit whole numbers” becomes a class-centred specific learning outcome if the phrasing is changed to “The pupils are able to multiply any two 2-digit whole numbers”, and becomes a pupil-centred specific learning outcome if the phrasing is changed to “John is able to multiply any two 2-digit whole numbers”. Class-centred learning outcomes are important in that they allow you to have access to information that would indicate the effectiveness of your teaching. How has the class as a group performed? To what extend has the class achieved each of the learning outcomes? While class-centred learning outcomes are important, it is the pupil- centred learning outcome that becomes part of a pupil record of achievement. Pupil-centred learning outcomes enable you to monitor each pupil’s progress and also to determine what are the specific areas of weaknesses or strengths of each pupil. More will be said about learning outcomes in later chapters. 29 You will notice from your course document that all the specific objectives contain an action verb that provides the teacher and the pupil with guidance for determining the depth to which the subject of the objective is to be dealt with by the teacher in his/her teaching or by the pupil in his/her learning. In learning outcomes these action verbs must be observable and measurable to allow you to assess what your pupils are able to do. Using such verbs makes it possible to tie objectives into assessable outcomes, which can be valuable. The following tables contain a selection of indicator verbs that usually appear in a Mathematics curriculum (2.5.2) and English Language (2.5.3) curriculum. manipulate order match count add divide group list use measure identify arrange compare estimate sort find construct solve apply convert create multiply define relate Figure 2.5.2 Order listen identify discuss invent recite sing compose predict recognize order ask justify retell summarize apply evaluate invent write contrast select complete draft record name Figure 2.5.3 Most text-books on the subject will tell you that objectives should be SMART, that is, • Specific - State clearly what the pupil should know or able to do and at what level • Measurable - Able to measure the level of pupils’ achievement. • Attainable - Able to conceive what pupils are expected to achieve after taking the class or course. • Realistic - Same as attainability but also focus on appropriateness to the overall course aim. • Time - Able to be achieved within the allowed timeframe. 30 2.6 From objectives to learning outcomes An introduction to objectives as they appear in the course document has been made in 2.4. The full value to you and to the pupil only emerges when the objective is reduced to its most fundamental forms, the specific learning outcomes. The process of reducing the objectives to specific learning outcomes so they can be observed and measured has been described as “unpacking” the objective. While traditional approach to teaching have been content with objectives as providing sufficient guides for teachers in their teaching, it makes the assessment process a nightmare as it is not clear from many objectives what is it that needs to be assessed. The question one has to ask is why has there been a shift in focus in the teaching and learning from objectives to learning outcomes. The learning outcomes approach reflects a conceptual shift towards making learning more meaningful and effective. For a variety of understandable reasons many of our pupils approach education as an “alienated intellectual activity”, rather than something that is good for them and that it enhances their lives. Making education more meaningful for these pupils requires that they acquire a sense of the educational activities as enabling them to lead a richer and more empowered life rather than a task done primarily to satisfy the demands of others. By explicitly building educational experiences based on what pupils should be able to do with their knowledge, the learning outcomes approach helps the educational community see where the educational programme fits into the community. From this perspective, it is important to fully grasp the importance of the link between course objectives and pupil learning outcomes. All course objectives have a verb describing an action, and a noun upon which the action is made. Within the context of teaching and learning, the action implied by the verb must be capable of being observed or measured. This implies that if the objective is phrased in a way that is difficult for the teacher to observe and measure what pupils are expected to be able to do, then it makes the teacher’s task much more challenging. It also makes it difficult for pupils to focus on what is it they are expected to learn and at what level. VERB NOUN Figure 2.6.1 31 For example; ADD NUMBERS READ NEWSPAPERS USE PUNCTUATION MEMORISE SYMBOLS Figure 2.6.2 While the above examples may look simple very few objectives are truly simple since either the verb implies complexity, or the noun needs to have a qualifier attached. VERB NOUN QUALIFIER Figure 2.6.3 For example; ADD NUMBERS 2-DIGIT MEMORISE SYMBOLS 40 ELEMENTS USE PUNCTUATION . , ? Figure 2.6.4 An objective that says, “pupils should be able to add numbers” appears simple because it only has the verb “add”, and the noun “numbers”. But it is not simple. This is because the objective can be interpreted as expecting any two numbers to be added together. So for example a pupil might be expected to add, 2 + 2, but may also be expected to add, 2 + 10 4 or 3¼ + 5⅜ Even though the verb “add” is simple, the noun “numbers” can be represented in a huge number of ways, and this adds to the complexity. This complexity hides a number of specific learning outcomes, and for the objective to be useful, these specific learning outcomes need to be brought out or “unpacked”. This will require adding a qualifier to the objective. The function of the qualifier is to place limits on the scope of the objective or to set the boundary within which the action (illustrated by the verb) should be taken. In this particular example, the unpacking should establish and list the simplest learning outcomes through to the most difficult learning outcomes required by the course in which the objective appears. Unpacking the objective, “pupils should be able to add numbers”, will involve adding appropriate qualifiers. Unpacking the objective could produce the following range of specific learning outcomes. These might represent the range required for a primary school mathematics course running from Grade 1 to Grade 6. 32 - add single-digit numbers with no regrouping - add single-digit numbers with regrouping - add two-digit numbers with no regrouping - add two-digit numbers with regrouping - - - - add decimal numbers to two places - - - - add simple fractions This process provides the specificity that was described in 2.3. Let us now turn our attention to the action verbs that are used in objectives. The verbs “add”, “memorize” and “use”, require the simplest level of action on the part of the pupil, and any objective containing them would only be regarded as complicated if a qualifier for the noun is required. Figure 2.6.5, contains a range of verbs typically appearing in objectives. Those in the row labeled “simplest”, are part of objectives that do not require unpacking unless the noun needs a qualifier. Those in the rows labeled “complex” and “most complex” almost certainly require the objectives, of which they are a part, to be unpacked in order to identify the specific learning outcomes being targeted. Add Find Remember Use List Know* Choose Memorize Simplest Draw Recall Read Make * Pupils will need to have an opportunity to demonstrate that they ‘know’ Calculate Design Discuss Distinguish Compare Measure Identify Interpret Complex Select Order Understand Recognize Respond Estimate Demonstrate Contrast Predict Isolate Apply Summarize Assemble Formulate Perform Most complex Analyze Construct Evaluate Design Adjust Develop Transform Synthesize Figure 2.6.5 33 Usually the increasing complexity of the verb level goes hand in hand with increasing cognitive demands on pupils. For this reason the “simplest” verb levels are found in the majority of objectives at the earlier years of schooling. However it is possible, with skillful planning, to devise activities that require “complex” and even “most complex” actions that can be attempted by young children. While one would not expect the “most complex” verb levels to appear very often in the course documents covering the primary school years, they do appear. As we have seen, it is the noun qualifier that aids in the unpacking of objectives that have a verb from the “simplest” level. But for “complex” and “most complex” level verbs, the unpacking also relates to the components that cause the action required by the verb to be complex. For example, consider the “complex” level verb COMPARE. Figure 2.6.6 isolates components within the COMPARE objective, and each of these components can form the basis for a specific learning outcome expected of pupils. Identify the things Display Display knowledge to be compared abou o t u the things to be b e com o pa p r a ed e Develop p a report in in language e that highlights highlights the COMPARE COMPARE Select relevant components to use comparis p on in the comparison De D s e cr c ibe b e the e fea e t a ur u es e Justify Justify the points being pe p r e tinent to the com o parison o us u e s d d in the compa p rison Figure 2.6.6 The text statements around the action verb form the basis for the specific learning objectives. Each can be observed or measured. And, each can be directed so that it is a pupil-centred specific learning outcome. These are the statements that, when answered, provide you and your pupils with a measure of the level of achievement of pupils. As an example, take the course objective; “Pupils will be able to compare the actions and behaviours of two characters in a story”. In this course objective, the noun is already qualified, but the verb, being complex, requires the objective to be unpacked in order to reveal the specific learning outcomes. These can be phrased as follows; “Identifies aspects of actions and behaviours to be compared” “Displays knowledge (knows) of the characters whose actions and behaviours are to be compared” “Selects relevant actions and behaviours for comparison” “Justifies including the various points for the comparison” 34 “Describes pertinent aspects of the actions and behaviours of the two characters” “Develops a report that highlights the comparison (such as in x… whereas in y…)” Notice that the initial action verb of COMPARE has been broken down into a new set of action words, namely; Identify Display Select Justify Describe Develop The course objective has now been broken down into five manageable specific learning outcomes, each of which can be observed or measured. As was mentioned in 2.5, involving pupils in the unpacking of objectives is one way of cementing interest in the process of learning. As you move on from one topic to another in your teaching, you and the pupils will be confronted with a new set of course objectives. This provides you with an opportunity to involve the pupils in the unpacking process. You may be teaching a General Studies course to Year 4 and have reached the point where you are to teach a topic on; “wood and gas as fuels”. A lesson spent on framing questions that lead towards specific learning outcomes, might produce something like this. Questions Learning Outcomes What is a fuel? “Know the characteristics of a fuel” What do fuels need to work? “Can list the requirements for a fuel” Why is wood a fuel? “Explain why wood is a fuel” “Describe the condition of the wood” What is gas? “Know the gas is methane “ “Know where gas comes from” Why is gas a fuel? “Explain why gas is a fuel” Which is best wood or gas? “List the advantages and disadvantages of wood and gas fuels” What other fuels are there? “Name three other fuels” What about pollution? “Name products of combustion” “Relate pollution to certain products” How can we be safe with our “Describe measures about safe use of fuels” fuels? “Describe measures for storing fuels safely” Figure 2.6.7 Even if you have ready-made specific learning outcomes, the exercise of involving pupils in “unpacking” them is worthwhile. The model shown in Figure 2.6.7, is produced by the class: • “brainstorming” ideas • choosing ideas for inclusion • framing questions that represent the ideas • developing learning outcomes based upon the questions The combined actions of unpacking and discussing, add to the platform of preparing the pupils for learning. 35 2.7 Unpacking objectives The objectives distributed throughout the course document display a whole range of action verbs. In the same way that the action verb ‘compare’ was exploded in the last section, similar treatment is given to a range of action verbs. The phrases at the end of the tails coming away from the oval holding the action verb should be read clockwise starting at between 10 and 12 o’clock. The order in which each one is read coincides with the order in which a pupil would demonstrate mastery or competency in the course objective. The process of identifying the complete list of developmental, yet observable and measurable phrases that represents the action verb in the objective is what is referred to as unpacking the objective. The result of the unpacking is a list of specific observable and measurable statements (learning outcomes) which indicate all that a pupil is required to be able to do to fully satisfy the objective. Any scheme attached to an activity designed to judge pupil success in achieving the objective would reflect both the order and the content of specific learning outcomes developed from the phrases. 1. Understands current position PREDICT 2. Lists influencing factors 4. Makes the prediction 3. Clarifies influence of each factor 1. Demonstrates understanding of the text SUMMARISE 2. Isolates salient points 4. Connects 3. Orders points points smoothly accurately 36 1. Selects viable approach CALCULATE 2. Orders steps coherently 4. Presents solution in appropriate form 3. Displays accuracy in the method 1. Considers the appropriate Set of objects or ideas SELECT 2. Chooses correct/ appropriate objects or ideas 1. Displays understanding of the question 2. Provides comprehensive RESPOND answer 2. Chooses ideas for 1. Considers inclusion important principles 5. Makes changes DESIGN as necessary 3. Drafts a solution 4. Tests the solution 37 1. Considers current 2. Identifies any arrangement need for change ADJUST 3. Effects the change 1. Reviews the list 2. Establishes a basis for order ORDER 3. Effects the order 1. Uses appropriate knowledge 2. Presents UNDERSTANDS accurate product 1. Chooses appropriate 2. Checks suitability of type of measuring scale device MEASURE 5. Indicates uncertainty 3. Uses measuring device 4. Presents measurement 1. Considers appropriate DISTINGUISH 2. Lists points of difference 3. Concludes on balance of difference 38 1. Chooses quantities pertaining to the 2. Simplifies the estimate size of the quantities ESTIMATE 3. Effects the 4. Presents the estimate estimate in most appropriate form 1. Chooses relevant 2. Presents points in points on the accurate way subject DISCUSS 3. Presents points in best order 1. Considers range of sets 2. Isolates appropriate set IDENTIFY or RECOGNISE 3. Chooses correct item 1. Draws on appropriate knowledge or motor skill 2. Presents the knowledge or skill effectively DEMONSTRATE 3. Convinces the observer with accurate points or execution 39 1. Judgement made on balance of evidence from the comparison CONTRAST 1. Gather appropriate ideas or objects 2. Orders ideas or objects coherently ASSEMBLE 1. Considers source 2. Validates inclusion or exclusion of ISOLATE material 3. Presents isolated item or material 1. Gathers together relevant ideas 2. Justifies inclusion of the ideas FORMULATE 3. Presents the ideas coherently 1. Uses the appropriate selections to respond successfully to the task APPLY SELECT 40 1. Breaks item into distinct groups 2. Considers each group in turn ANALYSE 3. Presents accurate summary of findings 1. Presents ideas or object as a coherent whole ASSEMBLE 1. Clarifies what is 2. Presents a step by step to be developed plan for the development DEVELOP 4. Presents the finished product 3. Executes the plan 1. Considers source material 2. Lists the contained features EVALUATE 4. Compiles an overview of 3. Considers each feature the material value and determines its value 41 1. Identifies what 2. Lists factors to be is to be designed considered in the design DESIGN 3. Shows evidence of drafting phases in the 4. Presents a final design design 1. Considers current form of the material 2. Chooses the elements to be transformed TRANSFORM 3. Executes the transformation 2. 1. Entertains through presence and quality of performance PERFORM Unpacking an objective is something that all teachers need to be able to do if they are to be in a position to be able to help their pupils. A teacher should be in a position to unpack an objective to identify the range of learning outcomes anticipated in each objective. These ooutcomes are usually expressed as knowledge skills or attitudes and can refer to knowledge practical skills critical thinking skills areas of professional development etc. that pupils are expected to develop or learn. A well-defined learning outcome specifies actions by pupils that are observable, measurable, and must be done by the pupils themselves. The crucial factor in determining if your learning outcome is well-defined is whether or not the action taken by the pupils can be assessed. There are several key issues that you as a teacher should consider prior to developing your pupil learning outcome statements: 42 • Keep in mind the knowledge and skills that are central to the course and/or discipline. • Do not focus on small details, but rather on general knowledge and/or skills you expect your pupils to acquire through your course. • Do not merely describe activities or lessons from the course, but rather articulate the learning that will result from the course. • Make sure your statement is centered not on what you are going to teach them, but rather on what the pupil will do. For example, “upon completion of this course pupils will be able to identify all the parts of a plant” as opposed to “one objective of this course are to teach about the parts of a plant.” A learning outcome statement needs to specify who is to perform (pupil), what action they are to take, and some results that must come from their action. Since the outcome must be measurable, the action specified must be an action verb. In other words, it should specify overt behavior that can be observed and measured. Some examples include: Create Discuss Analyze Explain Demonstrate Critique You should, however, avoid certain action verbs (like know, become aware of, appreciate, learn, understand, become familiar with), because they are unclear, subject to differing interpretations in terms of what action they are specifying. In addition, these verbs call for “covert” behavior which cannot be observed or measured. Unclear learning outcome statements: • The pupils will understand democracies. • The pupils will appreciate art from other cultures. • The pupils will learn about the law of relativity. These statements are not well-defined learning outcomes since they are not measurable. However, these statements can be modified to become well-defined learning outcomes as follows: • The pupils are able to describe the major theories of democracy. • The pupils are able to identify the characteristics of art from other cultures. • The pupils are able to explain the major tenets of the law of relativity. Writing learning outcomes that focus on higher-order skills may be a challenge. Consider incorporating words that reflect critical or higher-order thinking into your learning outcome statements. The work of Benjamin Bloom, (Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, 1984) who developed a taxonomy that outlines the types of thinking skills people use in the learning process, may be a useful guide. Bloom believes that learners use different levels of thinking skills to process different types of information and situations. The levels range from 43 the most basic cognitive skills, such as memorization, to more complex skills such as creating new ways to apply the information (e.g., critical thinking skills or higher-order thinking skills). Determining desired learning outcomes provides you as the teacher direction in terms of allowing you to: • identify specifically what you want your pupils to learn in the course. • more efficiently design content, instruction, and evaluation for the course. • convey to pupils as well as to your colleagues what you are covering in your course and the priority areas you intend to cover. • Allow you to manage your own expectations concerning what your pupils and course can actually accomplish. Learning outcome statements take the course learning goals and focus on how pupil can demonstrate that the goals are being met. In other words, learning outcomes answer the question of, “how can pupils demonstrate they have acquired the needed/stated knowledge, skills, and/or values.” Learning outcomes then are clear, concise statements that describe how pupils can demonstrate their mastery of the course’s learning goals. Toohey (1999) argues that learning outcomes are valuable because: • they clarify educational purpose and can help teachers design all other aspects of their program. Learning outcomes also provide a guide for teachers to appropriate learning and assessment activities. • they express educational purpose to pupils, so that they know what the course offers them and what is expected of them. In other words, learning outcomes help pupils to focus on what's important in the course. • they help teachers reconceptualise the educational purpose from the pupils' point of view, in terms of what the pupil can be expected to know or do as a result of completing the course. However there is a tendency for teachers to formulate learning outcomes for relatively trivial goals, such as being able to list components, laws, or principles. These are not the real goals of learning. We learn laws and principles so that we can understand, investigate, and predict certain situations. Memorizing laws and principles is a step on the way to being able to interpret, predict, or act more effectively in a given situation. Ramsden (1992) suggests that we try to describe concepts that pupils need to understand as well as relations between those concepts, rather than describing facts or procedures. If learning outcomes concentrate largely on procedures and facts, pupils will inevitably receive the message that higher order outcomes are less important than an ability to categorize and reproduce disconnected pieces of knowledge. In developing learning outcomes care should be taken especially when using words such as "understand" or "know" if you cannot be sure that 44 pupils will understand what it means to know or understand in a given context. For example, "understand exchange rates and trade" presumably implies an understanding of key concepts and their application to real situations, so we might specify this learning outcome as follows; • "able to explain the meaning and function of flexible and fixed exchange rates in relation to the concept of equilibrium" • "able to explain the significance of a current account deficit". Because different disciplines have different understandings of common academic terms, for example; "critical thinking", "analysis", "communication skills", it is important to be clear about what characterizes, for example, "critical thinking" in your discipline. Toohey (1999) suggests that the best way to be clear with pupils about how they must achieve learning outcomes in a subject is by setting out the assessment tasks and the criteria by which evidence of pupils’ work will be assessed. Learning outcomes should reflect the pupil's increasing competence and ability to deal with increasingly complex situations. They should be few and significant enough to be remembered and meaningful rather than a long list of trivial learning outcomes. 45 2.8 Skill levels Having gone through the unpacking process, and identifying the specific learning outcomes, it is important to have an understanding of the level of demand expected in each learning outcome. The indicator verb helps in identifying not only the skills but also the levels expected by each. As learning outcomes form the foundation upon which the assessment is constructed, one needs to identify the levels expected in each outcome before considering how to assessment should be carried out. The levels of the learning outcomes are typically linked to domains. The common domains of learning include cognitive, affective and psychomotor. Benjamin Bloom is credited with identifying the Taxonomy of the Cognitive Domain which contains six levels that increases in complex. The major part of the course content laid out in a course document is made up of course objectives which are linked to the cognitive skills. All the action verbs which start the objectives provide a guide to the level of thinking required by the objective. Figure S8.i provides a useful breakdown of the cognitive levels that are generally accepted, based on Bloom’s Taxonomy. Each cognitive level is briefly described in order to convey the basic requirements implied by the verb with sample indicator verbs and learning outcomes provided for each. Cognitive (Knowledge) Domain Level Key Question(s) Expectations Action Outcome Example Verbs What do I expect Recall specific Recite, List By the end of the pupils to know? facts or general chemistry program, concepts Knowledge pupils will be able to list all of the elements on the Periodic Table. Can learners The lowest level Translate, By the end of the interpret what of interpret, French program, they know? understanding, predict, pupils will be able without generalize, to translate a Comprehension Can they necessarily identify paragraph of text extrapolate from relating to other examples from English to what they know? material, or French. seeing a wider implication Can pupils see Using Apply, By the end of the the relevance of knowledge and rewrite BIS program, an idea to a new understanding Application pupils will be able situation? in concrete to apply basic Web situations. development skills 46 Can pupils Breaking down Analyze, By the end of the analyze elements a dissect, special education of the subject communication resolve, program, pupils field? into its solve, will be able to constituent diagnose, diagnose learning Can pupils parts. Seeing investigate disabilities in K-12 analyze the relationship settings. Analysis relationships in between ideas, the field? and the organization of Can pupils the analyze communication organizational is understood. principles? Can pupils Putting together Create, By the end of the produce a elements to synthesize, art program, pupils unique form a whole; write will be able to communication arranging create at least 12 in this field? elements into a original works in structure that their medium. Synthesis Can pupils was not there develop a plan or before. a proposed set of operations? Can pupils derive a set of abstract relationships? Can pupils make Making Evaluate, By the end of the judgments based judgments judge, music education on internal about the value rate, program, pupils evidence? of materials and appraise will be able to methods for a judge student Evaluation Can pupils make given purpose. performances. judgments based Often the on external judgments are evidence? made against a set of criteria. Figure 2.8.1 (Gronlund, N.E. (2000). How to Write and Use Instructional Objectives. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.) In general, as you move from “Knowledge” through to “Evaluation” the cognitive expectation on pupils rises. So that at a given age level, generally speaking objectives starting with “know …..”, are easier to achieve than objectives starting with “apply……”, and in turn are easier to achieve than objectives starting with “evaluate….” It is important that when the cognitive demands are being applied, the level of development of the pupil places the demand in context; and this usually relates to the age of the pupils. To expect a 10 year old pupil to understand the structure of a chlorophyll molecule may be more unrealistic than expecting the same pupil to apply ideas to work out the area of a tabletop. As a teacher you will always be trying to develop the cognitive skill levels of your pupils. It is important that your lesson planning reflects this desire. 47 You cannot teach the cognitive skill directly, as it is a development that goes hand in hand with firstly the acquisition of knowledge, and subsequently an understanding of the knowledge and how parts of the knowledge relate to each other. As pupils get older they naturally acquire increasing amounts of knowledge and the opportunities for demonstrating higher level cognitive skills broaden. So the reason that objectives requiring higher level cognitive skills are fewer in courses aimed at younger pupils, is because the breadth of knowledge on which to context the higher level skills is relatively small but not altogether missing. Take the case of the highest cognitive skill, “evaluation”. It is not difficult to imagine an activity which asks pupils in Grade 3 to decide which of two types of torch battery they would prefer to have in their torch. The activity may require pupils to decide what they are to look for as qualities of the two types of battery. The pupils either make collective oral responses, or, they may write their thoughts down individually. Then pupils would explain how each of the qualities is determined. And finally the results of the determination are used to make the evaluation. True, the pupils may not be able to express their evaluation in mature language, but the thought processes leading to distinctions and preferences will have been used. Larry “I want the red ones they are brighter.” Amery “Mum gets black ones, she says the’re less money” Toka “I never want the black ones they finish soon” Yolanda “I like the picture on the black ones” Larry & Amery respond with; “That doesn’t matter” Figure 2.8.2 Other domains commonly used as a reference in teaching are the Affective and the Psychomotor Taxonomies. The affective domain focuses on pupils’ attitudes, values and dispositions. Learning outcomes in this domain are more difficult to measure, however it is possible to measure them. As with Figure 2.8.1, Figure 2.8.3 provides a useful breakdown of the affective levels that are generally accepted and used. Each affective level is briefly described in order to convey the basic requirements implied by the verb with sample indicator verbs and learning outcomes provided for each level. 48 Affective (Values, Dispositions) Domain Level Action Verbs Outcome Example Receiving Attend, accept, listen, By the end of the women's studies selectively attend to program, pupils will listen attentively to alternative views on selected issues. Responding Comply with, approve, By the end of the elementary education volunteer, applaud, program, pupils will able to comply with acclaim PL 94-142. Valuing Increase proficiency in, By the end of the political science relinquish, assist, program, pupils will be able to debate support, deny, protest, numerous sides to an argument. debate Organization Balance, organize, By the end of the environmental studies formulate, accommodate program, pupils will be able to organize the conservation efforts of urban, suburban and rural communities. Characterization Respect, interpret, use By the end of the counselling program, by a value evidence, maintain pupils will be able to objectively interpret complex objectivity evidence presented by clients during a therapy session. Figure 2.8.3 (Gronlund, N.E. (2000). How to Write and Use Instructional Objectives. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.) Like the affective domain, the psychomotor domain is more difficult to measure as the taxonomy focuses on the development of pupils’ physical abilities and skills. The learning outcomes in this domain may include performances, skills in a sport, typing skills, painting, playing an instrument, manipulating another person’s limbs during physical therapy and demonstrating a dissection. As indicated by the action verbs, measuring pupils’ achievement in this domain require the pupils to carry out a performance. Figure 2.8.4 provides a useful breakdown of the psychomotor levels that are generally accepted and used. Each level is briefly described in order to convey the basic requirements implied by the verb with sample indicator verbs and learning outcomes provided for each level. 49 Psychomotor (Skills) Domain Level Action Verbs Outcome Example Perception Chooses, describes, detects, By the end of the music theatre differentiates, distinguishes, isolates, program, pupils will be able to relates, selects, separates relate types of music to particular dance steps. Set Begins, displays, explains, moves, By the end of the physical proceeds, reacts, responds, shows, education program, pupils will starts, volunteers be able to demonstrate the proper stance for batting a ball. Guided Assembles, builds, calibrates, By the end of the physical Response constructs, dismantles, displays, education program, pupils will dissects, fastens, fixes, grinds, heats, be able to perform a golf swing manipulates, measures, mends, as demonstrated by the mixes, sketches instructor. Mechanical Assembles, builds, calibrates, By the end of the biology Response constructs, dismantles, displays, program, pupils will be able to dissects, fastens, fixes, grinds, heats, assemble laboratory equipment manipulates, measures, mends, appropriate for experiments. mixes, sketches Complex Assembles, builds, calibrates, By the end of the industrial Response constructs, dismantles, displays, education program, pupils will dissects, fastens, fixes, grinds, heats, be able to demonstrate proper manipulates, measures, mends, use of woodworking tools to mixes, sketches, demonstrate high school students. Adaptation Adapts, alters, changes, rearranges, By the end of the industrial reorganizes, revises, varies education program, pupils will be able to adapt their lessons on woodworking skills for disabled students. Origination Arranges, combines, composes, By the end of the dance constructs, creates, designs, program, pupils will be able to originates create a dance step. Figure 2.8.4 (Gronlund, N.E. (2000). How to Write and Use Instructional Objectives. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.) 50 2.9 Achievement Levels Knowing the learning outcomes helps you to regularly refer to them with the pupils. Discussion will help to maintain direction for yourself in your teaching, and for your pupils in their learning. It will also highlight the quality of results the learning outcomes require if they are to be fully achieved. It is good practice to always have the learning outcomes at hand during teaching, and for the pupils to be fully aware of them throughout the learning process. Learning outcomes specify what pupils should be able to do if the outcome is achieved. In many cases deciding whether or not the outcome has been achieved is simple, either it has or it hasn’t. f However, one thing that will become clear, when studying the learning outcomes, is that many learning outcomes can either be fully achieved, or, partially achieved, depending upon the quality of the pupil response. If a pupil can add 54 + 76 then the learning outcome requiring “pupils to add 2-digit numbers with regrouping” has been achieved. But there are learning outcomes that pupils may achieve to some degree, but not to the whole intent of the outcome. The qualifier attached to the outcome may not be wholly satisfied. This poses the problem of how to record the level of success for a pupil whose work is being judged for a specific learning outcome. The recording tool developed takes the specific learning outcome, and provides a list of statements that describe the different levels of competency demonstrated by the pupil. The competency statements are usually called achievement levels. The number of possible achievement levels for each learning outcome depends on the nature of the outcome itself as well as on the number of aspects to be assessed or monitored in the outcome. Take for example the learning outcome; “pupils can use a range of punctuation marks correctly”. While the focus on the outcome is on punctuations, the range of punctuation marks will determine the ultimate achievement levels. The range of punctuation marks may even be well defined, such as – full stop, comma, question mark, exclamation mark, speech marks . For a learning outcome such as this, a pupil may partially meet the outcome by correctly using some of the range, or may use all members of the range correctly for some of the time or a few of the range or even none of the range. The highest level of achievement is usually the level the learning outcome expects. 51 A useful way of tracking the progress of pupils in this type of situation is to construct tables that specify the level to which the pupil has met the learning outcome. Just as involving pupils in unpacking and writing learning outcomes is seen as a valuable aid to learning, so is the involvement of pupils in recognizing and writing levels of achievement. Furthermore, allowing your pupils to maintain their own progress record can add to the involvement that the pupil feels. Ownership of progress is being encouraged. E An example is shown in Figure 2.9.1. Progress record for punctuation Class ………………. Pupil ……………………….. Punctuation Level Achievement Levels Check date 4 Good use of all punctuation most of the time 3 Good use of most punctuation most of the time 2 Correct use of punctuation is inconsistent 1 Rarely uses punctuation other than full stop 0 Has difficulty with all punctuations. Figure 2.9.1 The degree to which the learning outcome has been achieved is divided for convenience into five levels. Each level describes in general terms what the pupil is expected to demonstrate when using punctuations in sentence construction. The boxes under “check date” are for a date and tick to be entered. Figure 2.9.2 is a sample that has been completed for Dwight who is in class 6K. Progress record for punctuation Class …6K……. Pupil ……Dwight……….. Punctuation Level Achievement Levels Check date 4 Good use of all punctuation Oct most of the time 3 Good use of most Jul Sep punctuation most of the time 2 Correct use of punctuation Feb May is inconsistent 1 Rarely uses punctuation other than full stop 0 Does not use any punctuation Figure 2.9.2 His punctuation was checked in Feb, May, July, September and October. By October he had reached Level 4, and the learning objective of “pupils 52 can use a range of punctuation marks correctly”, has been achieved and can be recorded on his record of achievement. Of course the quality of the feedback that Dwight receives, and the guidance it provides over the months will be crucial to Dwight moving from Level 2 to Level 4. Let us look at the Grade 4 Mathematics objective’ “Pupils will be able to find the sum of 2- to 4-digit whole numbers with and without regrouping” Unpacking this outcome would obtain several specific pupil learning outcomes that may include the following; • finds the sum of two 2- to 4-digit whole numbers with and without regrouping • finds the sum of three 2- to 4-digit numbers with and without regrouping Using the specific learning outcomes that we unpacked from the objective above, a table of achievement levels can be created, as shown in Figure 2.9.3. Finds the sum of two 2- to 4-digit whole numbers with and without regrouping L4 Correctly sums two 2- to 4-digit whole numbers with multiple and consecutive regroupings most times. L3 Correctly sums two 2- to 3-digit whole numbers with multiple regroupings most times but difficulty with 4-digit numbers. L2 Correctly sums two 2- to 3-digit whole numbers but with single regroupings but difficulty with multiple regrouping and with 4-digit numbers. L1 Only adds two 2- to 3-digit numbers with no regrouping but still makes mistakes sometimes. L0 Has great difficulty with adding two numbers with and without regrouping Finds the sum of three 2- to 4-digit numbers with and without regrouping L4 Correctly sums three 2- to 4-digit whole numbers with multiple and consecutive regroupings most times. L3 Correctly sums three 2- to 3-digit whole numbers with multiple regroupings most times but difficulty with 2 or more 4-digit numbers. L2 Correctly sums three 2- to 3-digit whole numbers but with single regroupings but difficulty with multiple regrouping and with 4-digit numbers. L1 Only adds three 2- to 3-digit numbers with no regrouping but still Makes mistakes sometimes. L0 Has great difficulty with adding three 2- to 3-digit numbers with and without regrouping Figure 2.9.3 The unpacking process may identify other more specific learning outcomes. For example the learning outcome • adds two 2- to 4-digit whole numbers with and without regrouping. may further be unpacked to the following; 53 • adds two 2- to 4-digit whole numbers without regrouping; • adds two 2- to 4-digit whole numbers with single regrouping; • adds two 2- to 4-digit whole numbers with multiple and consecutive regrouping; Similarly the learning outcome • adds three 2- to 4-digit numbers with and without regrouping may further be unpacked to the following; • adds three 2-digit whole numbers with and without regrouping; • adds three 2- to 3-digit whole numbers with and without regrouping; • adds three 2- to 4-digit whole numbers with and without regrouping; If we go back to the course objective example used in earlier section; “Pupils will be able to compare the processes of internal and external fertilization” Using the specific learning outcomes that we unpacked from the objective, a table of achievement levels can be created, as shown in Figure 2.9.4. Displays knowledge (knows) about fertilization L3 Includes accurate comment on fertilization as a process L2 Minor inaccuracies in the process description L1 Comments riddled with inaccuracy L0 Unable to make any valid comment Selects relevant aspects of fertilization for comparison L2 Selects and includes a range of relevant points L1 Has missed at least one relevant point L0 Fails to select any relevant aspects that lend to comparison Justifies including the various points for comparison L2 All points are appropriately justified L1 Fails to justify at least one point L0 No valid justification made Describes pertinent aspects of fertilization L2 All pertinent aspects are well described L1 At least one aspect is not described L0 Description either absent or irrelevant Develops a report that highlights the comparison L1 The language is appropriately applied to draw out the comparison L0 The language fails to draw out comparison Figure 2.9.4 54 2.10 Course Presentation It has already been established that the course document carries three essential features. - the knowledge that has to be acquired; - the skills that have to be developed; - the objectives that package the knowledge and skills; There are different ways in which these three components can be presented in the course document. One way is for the course to be year-determined. This is the situation where the course runs for a discrete period such as one term, one year, two years, six years, and all the material to be taught and learnt during that period is described. Often the material is divided into convenient topics for teaching. Another way is for the course to be strand-determined. This is the situation where the course presents the material, to be taught and learnt, in strands where all the materials in a given strand are made up of knowledge and skills that are related. These strands run for an extended period – in primary schools typically six years. The strands are divided into attainment levels, often but not necessarily, coinciding with the school year that has just been completed. The attainment levels represent the learning outcomes that are to be achieved. All strands do not necessarily run at every level. More will be said about strands and attainment levels later in this handbook. Figures 2.10.1 and 2.10.2 represent year-determined and strand- determined methods respectively. Year–determined Gr 1 Gr 2 Gr 3 Gr 4 Gr 5 Gr 6 Figure 2.10.1 55 In year-determined courses the link between one year and the next is not explicit. Of course it would be possible to determine the link between the level in one year and the level in another year, on the same theme, by studying the content and skills described for each year. And that is exactly what is done when the course material is laid out in a strand-determined way. Strand–determined S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 Gr1 Gr2 Gr3 Gr4 Gr5 Gr6 Figure 2.10.2 Your course document will almost certainly present the material in a logical order for teaching, whether it is year-determined or strand- determined. This is because there is normally an obvious order for building knowledge and skill. This provides you with a sensible way of determining the content of your lessons, and the best order for teaching. What the course document will not do is tell you how much content should go into a single lesson, unless resources have already been developed which provide suitable lesson plans. The amount that you put into a single lesson will largely be governed by your experience as well as what it would be necessary to achieve the learning outcome. The following factors will play a part in determining the volume of content; - the amount of time that needs to be spent considering the learning outcomes from the previous lesson, - the anticipated difficulty that the new learning outcomes pose for pupils, - the problems in the organization of issuing and collecting equipment, - the amount of time required at the end of the lesson for consolidating or monitoring learning outcomes, - any external interference that might shorten the time available such as assemblies, sports practice, meetings; the usual interruptions that happen from time to time. 56 2.11 Basic Skills; Literacy and Numeracy If you wish to build a house you will not only need to have both the building materials and the tools available but you should also have the knowledge and experience on building houses. If the house is to be made of wood, then you will need planks of wood, and saws and hammers. If the house is to be made of concrete, then you will need the concrete blocks, and the trowel and spirit level. Using the right tools in the correct way will mean that in the end you will have a completed house. But before the house can be built, the tools must be in good condition. The saw must be sharp, the spirit level must be accurate. You as the builder must be prepared and be familiar with the plan and all the tools that you need. If we are to help build knowledgeable, skillful, competent pupils, the right tools need to be available and you as the teacher must be prepared for this to happen. Numeracy and Literacy are the basic tools that empower pupils to become knowledgeable, skillful and competent. In addition, reading, writing and numeracy skills are the basic building blocks of a successful education and are vital to every pupil’s future life opportunities. These tools need to be sharp. You on the other hand need to be able to identify which pupils are numerate or literate and which pupils are not and to be able to do that you need to know the tools that will enable you to do that. A pupil who is numerate and who is literate is in the best position to expand their pool of knowledge and skill. They are in the best position to communicate their needs. They are in the best position to offer skills to the society of which they are a part. In other words, a numerate and literate person has a better chance of becoming a successful member of the society than an innumerate and illiterate person. A pupil who does not develop numeracy and literacy skills becomes increasingly reliant on others for information and guidance. It is your role as the teacher to help these pupils so they can develop the appropriate numeracy and literacy skills. It is true that there are certain skills that do not require numeracy or literacy. For example, a person may have a natural aptitude for things mechanical, the sort of person who can take a motorbike engine to pieces and put it back together again. The most important service we can give to our pupils is one in which the development of their numeracy and literacy is pursued with planned care and concern. We need to be certain that each pupil is progressing, and is doing so at a rate best suited to the pupil. Experience tells us that pupils progress in their development of numeracy and literacy at differing rates. The way in which these basic skills are taught, and the way in which the progress is monitored, needs to reflect this. 57 Developing pupils’ literacy and numeracy skills has long been at the heart of development work throughout the primary school level. Every pupil needs to develop competency in the basic skills of literacy and numeracy from an early age as both are essential if pupils are to fulfil their potential in their careers and as adult members of the community. Yet both are not being given the urgency that they deserve both in the school and in the community. Literacy and Numeracy are both implicit in the right to education and are enshrined in various international conventions such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), Hamburg Declaration (1975), etc. The rationale for recognising literacy (and numeracy) as a right is the set of benefits it confers on people. Both are fundamental to informed-decision making, people empowerment especially the most vulnerable and enhancing people’s active participation in the community. They are also considered as providing the foundation for further studies in other discipline. Literacy and Numeracy is at the core of education in particular the Education for All (EFA) initiative. They are also important in all efforts to create a literate and numerate society. A literate mother is more likely to send her children to school than an illiterate mother. A literate and numerate community is more than a community with high literacy and numeracy rate. It is one where both literacy and numeracy are valued by everyone in the community. It is one where the diverse needs and priorities of all groups, especially the most vulnerable, are acknowledged and recognised. Illiteracy on the other hand is closely linked to poverty in that an illiterate and innumerate person has very limited opportunities throughout life. Communication becomes a huge challenge for those with low levels of literacy and numeracy. Consequently they do not acquire the basic every day skills that they need to become effective members of their respective communities. For these reasons all efforts should be taken to ensure that every pupil leaves school with the necessary knowledge and skills that they need to survive rather than becoming a burden to the community. This module “Are our pupils learning? How do we know?” aims to empower both serving teachers as well as teacher trainees to be able to ensure that they effectively transfer the appropriate knowledge and skills to the pupils under their care. For teachers to be able to carry this out effectively they need to be fully aware what knowledge and skills or more specifically what learning outcomes pupils are expected to achieve as a result of having taken the course. Teachers also need to be able to identify the level achieved by each pupil in each of the learning outcomes. 58 Chapter Three 3.1 Planning for teaching; where do we start? Imagine finding yourself in the middle of the forest in your country and your task is to save a particular species of lizard (iguana) that is disappearing from the forest. As a high school student you took science and then biology as subjects during which you came to know about iguanas and where they usually live, up in the trees. You are given a few equipment; a book on insects with a chapter on lizards, a net for catching insects, a pair of binoculars, a knife and a few others. In your studies you came to know of all of the equipments and where they can effectively be used. No one has briefed you about lizards on simple things such as; what do they eat and when do they eat? When do they go to sleep? How would they react to humans? Do they bite and are they poisonous? So, your first reaction would most probably be to ask yourself; “Where do I start?” “What do I need to do?” You will be fortunate if there was someone there to help guide you in what you have to do so you know what to do and how to use the limited equipment you have been given. But if help is not available, then you have the option of carefully planning out what you have to do. Perhaps read the book especially the chapter on lizards to learn more about them and their behaviour, their eating habits, where they are likely to be found, etc. You might even decide to seek out the advice on the expert in the village nearby. The chances are that you are likely to be successful in your task. Alternatively you might just decide to scout the forest with the pair of binoculars and when you see one you might just try and use the net to catch the lizard if you are lucky to find one. Your chances of success are very minimal and you might end up ultimately chasing the lizards away from the forest and they might eventually disappear. The above analogy sounds very familiar to many situations in classrooms throughout our region. Imagine you are a new teacher being put in a classroom with many pupils. Your role is to teach each one of them so that they are able to acquire the knowledge and skills expected at the end of each level. If you are a qualified teacher your task would be easier than if you do not possess the minimum academic qualifications. In your training to be a teacher you would have learned about children and how they develop. You also learn about various teaching methodologies and on how to prepare your lessons. Having achieved the minimum academic qualifications however does not make one a competent and professional teacher although it is more likely for a qualified teacher to become one than one without the required 59 qualifications. But even with the minimum qualifications a teacher is most likely to focus on delivery of content rather than on the achievement by pupils of the expected learning outcomes as outlined in the curriculum. The task of making sure that pupils acquire the appropriate knowledge and skills becomes a daunting one if the teacher does not have the relevant qualifications or competencies. Without proper help and guidance unqualified and incompetent teachers would not be in a position to decide which pupils have achieved and which ones have not achieved the learning outcomes. This means that they would not be in a position to adjust their teaching so as to provide the assistance pupils need if they are in no position to determine which pupils have acquired the appropriate knowledge and skills and which ones have not. The question of “where to start” becomes one that both qualified and unqualified teachers have to grapple with. Section 2.1 on Setting the Platform for learning outlines what teachers need to do to ensure that the classroom environment is conducive for effective teaching and learning to take place. But even in a conducive environment, the success of the teaching and hence pupil’s learning depend largely on the teacher. Teachers are expected to plan out on how they are going to teach their pupils. Teachers need to set clear targets for pupils as well as a realistic plan for achieving them. They are also expected to be able to use purposeful assessment to determine whether pupils have achieved the targets or not. To fulfil these expectations teachers need training and all the support they can get. This includes support on effective classroom leadership and management, good curriculum and lesson planning, high quality and effective teaching, efficient classroom organisation and use of purposeful assessment to gather appropriate information about pupils’ strengths and weaknesses. Knowledge of and familiarity with the curriculum including the curriculum expectations are good areas to start. Planning a lesson is an art and is an important skill or competency that all teachers need to acquire. This section of the module provides useful suggestions for teachers to follow when planning a lesson. 60 3.2 Framing a lesson plan It is a useful practice to develop a format that is suited to most lessons that you have with pupils. It is an essential practice to develop a plan for every lesson that you have with pupils. This does not prevent a lesson developing differently from what you had planned. What it does is ensure that sufficient thought has been put into how the lesson time is to be spent, and in particular it makes sure that specific course objectives are targeted and that specific learning outcome are recognized. A lesson plan is a framework for a lesson. Imagine a lesson as a journey, and then the lesson plan is the map. It shows you where you start, where you finish and the route to take to get there. Planning a lesson is essential and is a special skill that is learned in much the same way as other skills. Essentially the lesson plan sets out what the teacher hopes to achieve over the course of the lesson and how he or she hopes to achieve it. Usually they are in written form but they don't have to be. New or inexperienced teachers may want to or be required to produce very detailed plans - showing clearly what is happening at any particular time in the lesson. However in a realistic teaching environment it is perhaps impractical to consider this detail in planning on a daily basis. As teachers gain experience and confidence, they develop the ability to plan more quickly and very experienced teachers may be able to go into class with just a short list of notes or even with the plan in their heads. When a teacher is able to create their own lesson plans, it means that they have taken a giant step toward "owning" the content to be taught and the methods to use. Acquiring this skill is far more valuable than being able to use lesson plans developed by others. It takes thinking and practice to hone this skill, and it won't happen overnight, but it is a skill that will help to define you as a teacher. Knowing "how to plan a lesson" is far more important than knowing "about lesson planning" and is one of the important competencies teachers need to acquire. It is an important step along the way to becoming a professional teacher. Regardless of the form, there are fundamental components of all lesson plans that you should learn to write, revise, and improve. One may ask, “Why do we need a lesson plan?” Well, one of the most important reasons for planning your lesson is that the teacher needs to identify his or her objectives for the lesson. Teachers need to know what it is they want their pupils to be able to do at the end of the lesson that they couldn't do before. 61 Here are some more reasons why planning is important; • gives the teacher the opportunity to predict possible problems and therefore consider solutions. • makes sure that the lesson is balanced and appropriate for the class. • gives teacher confidence. • good practice and a sign of professionalism A sample lesson plan format is shown in Figure 3.2.1, and a lesson planned on that format is shown in Figure 3.2.2. Class: ________ Class size____ Date: __________ Course: _____________ Lesson duration _______ Specific learning outcome(s) Key concepts Materials required Introductory approach Lesson development 7Lesson conclusion Pupil activity for feedback Lesson evaluation Handling content Pupil involvement Aspects to be revisited Figure 3.2.1 62 Class: 4A Class size 33 Date: 20th October 2005 Course: Science Lesson duration: 50 minutes Specific learning outcomes Pupils can identify and explain the functions of flower parts Key concepts Linking flower part to the function of that part Materials required A range of flowers, hand lenses, prepared handouts Introductory approach 5 minutes 1. Recap by oral interaction (questioning and voluntary response) on the major parts of a flowering plant. 2. Draw attention to the specific objectives for this lesson. 3. Refer to previous homework requiring pupils to read up on flower parts. Lesson development 10 minutes (1-4)+ 15 minutes (5-6) 1. The collection of flowers is placed where they will be accessible to pupils. 2. All pupils told to stand still wherever they like in the classroom. 3. Many chosen as group leader, and any other pupil that can touch Mary without moving their feet become part of Mary’s group. 4. Mary’s group get together to determine 5 questions relating to flower function and structure. All other pupils independently attempt to list on paper 10 points that relate to flower function and structure. 5. Mary’s group asks one of their questions at a time, and the class attempts to respond orally using the points they have independently produced. This is repeated for each of Mary’s group questions, allowing time for responses and discussion. Lesson conclusion Conclude by covering any important points missed, and amplify others by further discussion Pupil activity for feedback 10 minutes Prepared handout which lists two columns headed flower part and function. Pupils complete columns by entering either the flower part or the function, whichever is missing Lesson evaluation Handling content Group selection method worked fine, more flowers needed next time Pupil involvement Most were busy but next time let the responding group work in pairs to compile their points as this time a few did not give much thought to it Aspects to be revisited Handout showed confusion between anther and pollen. During class discussion no-one mentioned flowers that were small and hardly noticeable Figure 3.2.2 63 3.3 Description of a lesson plan format Although the lesson plan format is largely self explanatory, it is probably worthwhile going through it here to amplify the possibilities of each section. Class Although the plan format says class, it could equally well to say “form” but probably not “year”. Different classes in the same year might evoke different comments in the Lesson appraisal box. Class size The class size needs to be taken into consideration, particularly when equipment and materials may be involved. Distribution and sharing of resources need to be part of the lesson planning, and class size will have an impact on this. Date Although the date is of no immediate significance, its record will mean that in the long term the lesson can be placed in the time-context of all other lessons. This might become important when looking at the development of skills that are found reappearing throughout the course. Duration The length of time available for the lesson will determine how much can be covered during the period. Specific learning outcomes The inclusion of specific learning outcomes on the lesson plan provides a cross check with any other document on which the achieved learning outcomes have been recorded. For example you might tick off course objectives in the course book as you feel each has been taught towards. If at any time you wanted to be reassured that an objective had been covered in class, then locating the lesson plan would do that, and also provide other information relating to the learning outcomes. Key concepts The key concepts will reflect the specific learning outcomes, but will also provide a focus during the teaching. Materials required It is fair to assume that certain materials would be readily available in the classroom. This box is not intended to have these repeatedly entered onto every lesson plan. It is intended to list only those materials which are to meet the peculiar needs of this particular lesson. Its presence on the lesson 64 plan format serves two important purposes. Firstly it requires you to think through the whole lesson development in order to identify what the material requirements might be. A lot of time can be wasted in discovering quarter- way into a lesson that you have to disappear to find some missing item. Secondly, it would allow someone else to gather the required materials on your behalf. This might be a member of staff or might be pupils of the class to be taught. Introductory approach The first five minutes and the last five minutes of any lesson are probably the most important periods in terms of clarifying purpose (what is this lesson for?) and determining level of success. It is at the beginning that you can offer a logical progression into the current lesson from the previous lesson with the same class. If the connection is close, this period can be used to gather opinions or responses from the class about the previous period. You may also have required pupils to prepare in some way for the current lesson. Pupils selected, or who volunteer, can provide a sample overview of the degree of preparation. This should then lead into making known the course objectives that apply to this lesson. At the same time, you should translate the course objectives into statements that emphasize specific learning outcomes. Lesson development The lesson development box summarizes the anticipated steps through which the lesson develops. Since it is a summary it does not provide the lesson detail. Nor can it be assumed that all summary steps are equally demanding in terms of time or content. In the example given in Figure S10.ii, steps 1-4 were estimated to require 10 minutes and steps 5-6 were estimated to take 15 minutes. Also, the style of lesson development can vary widely. - whole lesson spent in discussion - whole lesson doing a textbook exercise - whole lesson engaged in an experiment - part lesson responding to questions, part lesson trying out an idea The list of possibilities is endless. The important point is that you know exactly what is implied by each of the steps that are recorded on the lesson plan. Conclusion A brief period spent ensuring that the key concepts are highlighted in the minds of pupils, and linking with the specific learning outcome statements. Pupil activity feedback This is a built-in opportunity for you to collect information that will allow you to find out what course objectives have been met, and which may 65 require further attention. This information may come to you as representative of the whole class, or may be available at individual pupil level. This will depend on how the information is collected. Since by this point very little time is left allocated to the lesson period, the way in which the feedback is collected must be of a style that requires little of the pupils’ time. Lesson evaluation This box encourages you to immediately examine the success or otherwise of the lesson. As shown in the example of Figure S10.ii, comments can be made which on the one hand identify weakness, and on the other hand can make suggestions for improvement the next time the lesson is taught. It also pinpoints aspects of the lesson which need to be repeated if specific learning outcomes are to be achieved. Lesson plans for multi-class teaching If you have the very difficult job of teaching several groups of pupils at differing age levels, or at differing points of progress, it is probable that you are teaching different unrelated topics at the same time. Under those circumstances your lesson plan will need to reflect this. Producing different lesson plans for the same time-tabled period will ensure that you focus adequately for the various groups of pupils. The same sub-headings to your plan will be applicable, but the amount of time that you are available to a single group of pupils will be reduced. The activity you plan for pupils will take account of the fact that you are unavailable at certain times during the period. This will require planning that expects a greater proportion of time to be spent by pupils doing individual work, or in groups free to discuss between themselves. 66 3.4 Preparing sound lesson plans Preparing a lesson plan is one thing but preparing an effective and sound lesson plan is another. Lesson plans make up the framework for instruction in most classrooms and they may change and evolve as teachers attempt to meet individual needs and create stronger lessons. A great deal of teacher’s effectiveness in teaching has to do with their ability to design and implement instruction that promotes and encourages learning. A lesson plan, which is a (more or less) detailed plan of the goals and activities for a particular class, is an important part of this process. Preparing a lesson plan is when you as the teacher considers how to organize and achieve some of the goals and objectives you outlined as you planned the course. While developing lesson plans for each class may seem like an onerous burden at first, doing so is important because and becomes easier as you acquire the skill with practice. The process of planning each lesson forces teachers to reflect on what they want to accomplish in each class and how best to do so. An effective lesson plan applies different instructional methods to give the class variety and meet the needs of majority of pupils in the class. Here are some guidelines and questions to consider when preparing instructionally sound lesson plans. Clearly state the objective and learning outcomes What is your rationale for the objectives? How important are the knowledge and skills you are asking your pupils to display and how do they fit into the broader context of the course you are teaching? What contents are you going to use and that you expect your pupils to know and understand? What do you want your pupils to gain from this lesson? What do you want your pupils to know at the end of the lesson? Is your objective and learning outcome(s) clearly stated? Standard What standards are you going to address in the lesson? Are they the school’s standards or national standards or your own standards? Is your objective in accordance with the standards you are using? Assessment How are you going to know if your pupils have mastered the concept/skill? What instruments do you intend to use to evaluate your pupils’ learning and the effectiveness of your teaching? Does your assessment match your objective and learning outcome? 67 Is the assessment method you intend to use the most appropriate? Will it provide you with the evidence you need about pupil learning? Materials What materials would you need to be able to teach the lesson effectively? Will you need to make any special arrangements prior to teaching the lesson? How much preparation time would you need? Instruction/Procedures How will you teach the skill/concept? Are you addressing all that the learning outcome and objective anticipates? Are you using the most appropriate strategies to teach the lesson? Are all of your pupils going to be actively engaged throughout the lesson? What is your strategy for those who may finish early? Are pupils supposed to have any prior knowledge of the subject area, or is this an introductory lesson? Enrichment How do you intend to enrich the content/skills to cater for advanced students? Do you have an alternative scenario in case something unexpected happens during the lesson? Remedial/Intervention What do you intend to do to pupils who need extra help? Do you have an intervention strategy if needed? Do you need to prepare activities if you need to reteach the concept/skill? What more information do you need? Although you may have planned well for your lesson always be prepared for the unexpected. Be flexible and do not adhere to your plan rigidly as it is only a guide for you to use. If you strictly follow your plan and fail to make the necessary adjustments based on how your pupils react you may miss valuable opportunities for you to connect with your pupils. As a rule always find the lesson plan format that works for you as each teacher is different and prefer to do things differently from those of his/her colleagues. 68 3.5 Classroom – a place where mistakes are useful Making mistakes is a natural, and possibly necessary, step in the process of learning. Babies learn to stand by trying and failing repeatedly. Toddlers learn to walk by tottering and falling repeatedly. People learn to drive through a process of attempt, error, attempt again. The first time a person tries to drive, usually the car engine stalls, or the car jumps suddenly forward. Gradually the driver learns to co-ordinate the clutch and the accelerator. But mistakes are made. They are expected. If ‘making mistakes’ is a pre-requisite part of learning, then perhaps the ‘safe life’ where no mistakes are made, would reflect a life where little learning has taken place. The classroom is supposed to be a place where learning predominates. It therefore follows that the classroom atmosphere needs to be one in which ‘making mistakes’ is expected and where the consequence of making a mistake is recognized as contributing to the formation of a better platform for learning. Hopefully you can build a classroom atmosphere in which mistakes and ‘chancing your arm’ are much preferred to silence. An atmosphere in which pupils know that there are no repercussions such as embarrassment, or shame, or being a target of fun, that follow from their mistakes. From the word ‘go’ your attempts to foster recognition of the value of making mistakes will determine to what extent your classroom is a place fully accepting of the role that mistakes play in learning. The way in which you react towards pupils as they are in the process of making mistakes will be central to the building of a worry-free atmosphere. Responding with reassuring statements such as; “That’s exactly like the mistake I made yesterday” “I’m glad you said that, most people think the same way” “That’s not quite right; what if you rethink the second part” As a teacher, there will be occasions when you inadvertently make mistakes. Perhaps not often, but sometimes! On these occasions it will be refreshing to acknowledge the error rather than attempt to hide it; and indeed expose the error with a statement such as; “You see even the brilliant make mistakes!” “That’s my third mistake today” One way of getting pupils to accept that mistakes are part of learning is to construct an activity in which they are to ‘spot the mistakes’. 69 E For example, you can construct a short story that contains grammatical mistakes. You ask pupils to listen to you reading the short story and to raise their hand as soon as they hear you making a mistake. As I come to school this morning they started to rain. I go into the shop where it are dry. The shopkeeper asked me what I --- doing. I said I will sheltering from the rain. She said “are you going to bought something?” I said “I ---- no money”. She was very kind and give me a biscuit. I said thank you, and I left a shop. Figure 3.5.1 E You can also get pupils to generate ‘mistakes’ on purpose. Imagine it is a mathematics lesson. You ask every pupil to make one question, but to prepare two answers, one being correct and the other being wrong. You also secretly tell each pupil which answer is to be called out to the class in answer to the question. The class then responds with; ‘That is a mistake’ or with ‘That is correct’ Lily: Joe: In the number 123, the 2 is Is it true that 8 x 12 is the same as; 8 x 10 plus 8 x 2 Correct 2 x 10 Correct Yes Mistake 1 x 2 Mistake No Michael: Toutai: Half of 58 is In our class of 40, ¼ of us have no desk. How many desks are there? Correct 29 Correct 30 Mistake 24 Mistake 10 Figure 3.5.2 70 3.6 Exemplars – models for learning An ‘exemplar’ is a model that acts as an example piece of pupil work. The exemplar has certain qualities that allow it to be matched against specific learning outcomes. It does not necessarily mean that the work is of the highest standard, as learning outcomes are often judged at various achievement levels, (as an example see later sections) There is nothing to rival the effectiveness of exemplars in order to help pupils see the connection between a specific learning outcome and the work that shows the outcome being achieved. Exemplars are not used when it comes to a question of fact, except that the correct answer is the exemplar. Exemplars have their value when you and your pupils need to judge whether or not a learning outcome has been reached. The type of pupil work that benefit from exemplars being available, range across all subjects, and the following list shows how diverse they can be. - An essay on the favourite character seen in a video film. - A project to find out about local rainfall. - A graph of data collected in a traffic survey - A model aeroplane made out of paper - A woven table mat - A pencil drawing of a coconut tree - An experiment design to test the strength of coconut string These tasks all produce a tangible product. The result of the pupils’ work can be held, and looked at long after the work was first produced (provided it is cared for). There are two other types of exemplar that are short lived, and unfortunately not available to pupils except for certain short periods of time. The first type involves perishable student work, such as. - cooking fish on an open fire - growing vegetables in the garden The second type involves performance such as. - doing the long jump - shooting in netball - acting in a play - measuring temperature with a thermometer It is true that the pupils can observe all of these being done well; and they can discuss what qualities show that it is being done well. With some activities they will be able to follow immediately in an attempt to 71 emulate the good performance. But unlike the tangible exemplars pupils cannot easily refer back to them later. As a teacher you may be in a position to build a bank of tangible exemplars by using the work of current pupils. If you can it is certainly worthwhile doing. But, showing the exemplar to pupils is only half of the process. The other half involves making certain that the pupils know exactly what are the aspects of the exemplar that have been considered to be good. Since the pupil work has been done in an attempt to meet learning outcomes, it is these outcomes that should be the focus, when the exemplar is being studied by the pupils. If the learning outcomes are broken down into achievement levels, then the outcome descriptions in those levels help to show pupils how slightly better or slightly poorer work would appear in the exemplar. You may, over time, be able to collect exemplars that range in quality, so that pupils can see how they might adjust in order to move from one level of quality to another. Although it is desirable for the exemplars to be the work of a pupil or pupils who are the same age or year of study as those pupils benefiting from the exemplar, this may not always be possible; especially when you are first trying to collect items for use as exemplars. For certain types of work you can produce a model which exemplifies the learning outcomes. For example in the skill of graphing you could produce an annotated graph, Figure 3.6.1, that highlights all the important features. The data in the table below is used to draw a graph of; Distance vs Time. Draw the smoothest curve through your plotted points Time of day Total distance walked (am or pm) (Km) 4 am 0 5 am 3 6 am 6 7 am 9 8 am 12 9 am 15 10 am 18 72 Distance walked by the athlete vs The time of day title 20 points clearly plotted labelled 18 16 14 Distance walked (km) 12 10 unit line drawn for points 8 6 graduations 4 2 0 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Time of day Units shown graduations shown Axis labelled (from 4 am to 10 am) Figure 3.6.1 73 3.7 Available Resources The course document described earlier is an essential guide to what is to be achieved during your teaching. However, it is not a textbook and it is not a lesson planner. Nevertheless it is an important guide for both teachers and pupils. If you are lucky there may be resources developed specifically to meet the demands of the course document. If you are very lucky there may be a resource developed that provides lesson plans to meet the demands of the course document. If you have not taught the course before, you should find out exactly what materials are available to support your teaching. The people who might be able to help you locate valuable resources are; - other teachers in your school; - the principal or deputy principal of your school who might hold a reference library of all resources; - older pupils who have done the course before; - teachers of the same subject in other schools nearby; - the subject specialist usually stationed at the curriculum centre; - subject teachers association; Resources that have been specifically developed for a course are usually of two types; those for use by teachers (often described as teacher guides) and those for use by pupils (often described as course units or pupil’s workbook). The objectives, containing the specific learning outcomes that are listed in the course document, should feature prominently in any resources specifically developed for the course. This provides teachers with a very important link; that of working the course objectives into the teaching process. If you are not so lucky, you may have good resources, such as widely published textbooks. However you need to realize that these will not have been produced for the specific course that you are teaching. In this case it will be left to you to establish the important link between the textbook material, the course objectives, and, your teaching. The resources already mentioned may contain activities that have been designed to produce information on how well the pupils are learning, and on how successful your teaching has been in guiding pupils to achieve what the learning outcomes expects. If such activities are absent, it will be left to you, the teacher, to devise activities that serve this function. The development and inclusion of such activities will mean that the resource pool available for the course will be expanded in a valuable way. It may be useful to list them with a brief description, so that if they are included in the resources already described above, you will be in a position to recognize them. 74 Within the period of normal teaching - spontaneous observation of pupil behaviour - spontaneous oral interaction between teacher and pupil - spontaneous oral interaction between pupil and pupil Within the period of normal teaching, but placed either at the very beginning or at the very end of the teaching period - prepared oral questioning by teacher, with brief written response - prepared oral questioning by pupil, with brief written response - prepared written activity by teacher with brief structured written response An activity that replaces normal teaching, because the activity takes over a majority of the class-time for that period. - prepared written activity by teacher with response involving a multi-step structure. The way in which you handle the implementation of these activities; the way in which you collect information from these activities; the way in which you use the information yielded by these activities, can all have an impact on the pupils in terms of successfully meeting the learning outcomes of the course. 75 3.8 Feed forward – Preparation for Learning The term ‘feed-forward’ refers to those opportunities that can be put in place beforehand so that pupils have the best chance of reaching the learning outcomes. Feed-forward needs to be specific and well focused, if it is to be useful to the pupil and improve the chances of the learning outcomes being achieved. Feed-forward Learning Feedback Opportunities put in place Opportunities put in place before teaching and during and after learning learning is attempted has been attempted Figure 3.8.1 The most important feed-forward opportunities are; - pupils being forewarned of topics to be the focus of their lessons in the immediate future. This information, coupled with encouragement, opens up the possibility for pupils to prepare themselves in advance of the teaching. It also provides an opportunity for parents to be involved in the preparation. For example a teacher says, “on Friday we will be talking about different diseases in the village. Talk to your family; see what they have to say about their experiences”. - pupils being in possession of the course objective statements and more importantly the statements of specific learning outcomes as they relate to the lesson that is shortly to be taught. In other words the pupils have had a chance to read these targets before any discussion or lesson that is intended to help pupils reach the targets. This opportunity is further improved if you spend time discussing and explaining what is involved. For example a teacher says, “we are going to be studying disease in the village. Lets talk about the sorts of things we need to find out”. - pupils studying pieces of work (exemplars), that have the qualities being sought by the course objectives, and which show learning outcomes that have been achieved. 76 For example a teacher says, “Here is a project that one of the pupils did last year on disease in her village. Read through her project, because she has some good ideas that we can use”. - pupils being provided with check-lists, marking criteria, and achievement level statements that spell out exactly what aspects of the piece of work they produce will be looked for as evidence of achieved learning outcomes. For example a teacher says, “When we are looking at how good your work is, we will compare the work with these descriptions. I will put them on the wall so that you can read them at any time you want”. Feed forward provides pupils with information that allows them to better prepare themselves to the teaching and learning process. It allows them to know in advance what teachers are going to focus on in their teaching while at the same time allows them to have an insight of the quality of work they are expected to produce in order to fully achieve the learning outcomes. Much of the previous sections on ‘Setting the Platform’ and ‘Planning for teaching’ relate to ideas that promote the achievement of learning outcomes, and this includes the use of activities that provide information that allows you the teacher, and the pupils to “know where they are” in terms of reaching the requirement of the learning outcomes. More importantly it allows you the teacher, and the pupils to determine the best way to move towards achieving the learning outcomes. 77 Chapter Four 4.1 Knowing what to teach Knowing the content of the course you are to teach as well as the course objectives, the skills and learning outcomes are important consideration for teachers. Without this knowledge would make it difficult for teachers to decide where to start. In section 2.10, ‘Course Presentation’, the idea of a strand-determined arrangement of course objectives was described. To refresh ourselves, this is the situation where the course presents the material, to be taught and learnt, in strands where all the materials in a given strand are made up of knowledge and skills that are related. Both Language and Mathematics courses are ideally suited to being presented in a strand-determined way. This is because a strand that starts in Grade 1 is likely to continue to be developed right through to the end of Grade 8, and beyond. A particular strand will have numerous learning outcomes, and these will be placed at intervals along its length. As a pupil advances along the strand, learning outcomes are achieved, with the next learning outcomes building upon the previous ones. Typically the course will have several major strands, which we can call Key Strands. For example; In Language; ‘Reading’, ‘Speaking’, ‘Listening’ and ‘Writing’ would be considered as Key Strands. In Mathematics; ‘Numbers’, ‘Operations’, ‘Measurement’, ‘Geometry’ and ‘Data’ would be considered as Key Strands. It is likely that each of the Key Strands can themselves be broken down into a number of sub-strands. Consider the Key Strand “Operations” in a Mathematics course. This can be broken into several sub-strands such as ‘Addition’, ‘Subtraction’, ‘Multiplication’ and ‘Division’. Within a strand or sub-strand the development of specific related skills can be represented either by a skill-line or by a skill-ladder. A skill-line can be used in situations where a particular skill is covered at consecutive levels and where the language of the learning outcome is sufficiently precise to make clear all the requirements of a learning outcome at a particular level. A skill-ladder can be used in situations where the language of the learning outcome describes additional aspects to the skill that were absent from the previous level. To illustrate the difference between the two issues of skill-line and skill- ladder, let us consider the sub-strand of addition in a mathematics 78 course. The overarching learning outcome might be “pupils are able to add two numbers”. A numeracy Example; “pupils are able to add two numbers” E A skills-line development of the overarching learning outcome might comprise of the following specific learning outcome; Grade 1: Add two 1-digit whole numbers with/without carry. Grade 2: Add 1-digit and 2-digit whole numbers with/without carry. Grade 3: Add up to two 2-digit whole numbers with/without carry. Grade 4: Add up to two 3-digit whole numbers with/without carry. Grade 5: Add up to two 4-digit whole numbers with/without carry. Grade 6: Add up to two 5-digit whole numbers with/without carry. As seen from the above example, the same skill “adding two numbers” is being developed along the same line except for the number of digits which increases as the pupil progresses up the educational ladder. A skills-ladder development of the same overarching learning outcome however might comprise of the following learning outcomes; Grade 1: Add two 1-digit whole numbers with/without carry. Grade 2: Add a 1-digit and 2-digit whole numbers with/without carry. Add two fractions with 1-digit but same denominators (restrict to 1 ). 2 Grade 3: Add up to two 2-digit whole numbers with/without carry. Add two fractions with 1-digit denominators that are the same or multiples of each other. Grade 4: Add up to two 3-digit whole numbers with/without carry. Add two fractions with up to 2-digit denominators that are the same or multiples of each other. Add two 1-decimal numbers with/without carry. Grade 5: Add up to two 4-digit whole numbers with/without carry. Add two fractions with up to 2-digit denominators. Also add up to two 2-decimal numbers with/without carry. Grade 6: Add up to two 5-digit whole numbers with/without carry. Add two fractions with up to 2-digit denominators including improper fractions. Add up to two 3-decimal numbers with/without carry. 79 A literacy Example E ; “pupils are able to read with understanding” A possible skills-line development of the overarching learning outcome i m ght comprise of the following specific learning outcome; Grade 1: Read a simple sentence or phrase. Grade 2: Read and respond to questions based on a simple sentence. Grad e 3: Read and respond to questions regarding the meaning of words and content of a given genre. Grade 4: Read, understand and respond to questions relating to any given genre (texts). Grade 5: Read, understand, question and respond to questions relating to a variety of genres (texts). Grad e 6; Read, understand, question and respond critically to a variety of genres (texts). A skills-ladder development of the same overarching learning outcome o h wever might comprise of the following learning outcomes; Grade 1: Read a simple sentence or phrase. Grad e 2: Read and respond to questions based on a simple sentence. Identify synonyms for a given word in the sentence. Grade 3: Read and respond to questions regarding the meaning of words and content of a given genre. Identify synonyms as well as antonyms for a given word in the given genre. Grade 4: Read, understand and respond to questions relating to any given genre (texts). Identify synonyms as well as antonyms for a given word in the given genre. Write a brief outline of the main theme in the given genre. Grade 5: Read, understand, question and respond to questions relating to a variety of genres (texts). Identify synonyms as well as antonyms of words in a variety of genre. Write a brief outline of the main theme in a variety of genres. Describe the main character or message portrayed by the genre. Grade 6; Read, understand, question and respond critically to a variety of genres (texts). Identify synonyms as well as antonyms of words in a variety of genre. Write a brief outline of the main theme in a variety of genres. Describe the main character or message portrayed by the genre. Compare and contrast the use of language in any two genres. As seen from the two examples above, both the skill-line and the skill- ladder approach emphasize the development of a skill. This is essential if 80 the progress of a pupil for a particular skill is to be monitored for the purpose of promoting learning. The skill-line and the skill-ladder provide both the pupils and the teacher with a graphic representation that clearly places the learning outcomes in order. Figure 4.1.1 shows how a course might be broken down to the level of skill-line or skill-ladder. Course Key Strand Key Strand Key Strand Key Strand Key Strand 1 2 3 4 5 3 2 2 Sub-strands Sub-strands Sub-strands 3 Skill–lines 2 Skill–lines 1 Skill–line 3 Skill – lines 4 Skill–lines 3 Skill–ladders 1 Skill–ladder 3 Skill–ladders 2 Skill–ladders Figure 4.1.1 Structure of a Skill-line Learning Outcomes Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade 1 2 3 4 5 6 Figure 4.1.2 Structure of a Skill-ladder Grades 1-5 + Grade 6 Learning Outcome Grade 6 Grades 1-4 + Grade 5 Learning Outcome Grade 5 Grades 1-3 + Grade 4 Learning Outcome Grade 4 Grades 1-2 + Grade 3 Learning Outcome Grade 3 Grades 1 + Grade 2 Learning outcome Grade 2 Grade 1 Learning Outcome Grade 1 Figure 4.1.3 81 In the example shown in Figure 4.1.4, the sub-strand depicted is ‘Addition’ in the Mathematics course. This lies within the Key Strand of ‘Operations’. A total of twenty learning outcomes are shown in the figure 4.1.5. They are shown in sequence, and the year by which the outcome is expected to be achieved is shown as a heading for each column. For example: Strand - Operations Addition + Grade 1 2 3 4 5 6 1.1 2.1 3.1 4.1 5.1 6.1 Learning 1.2 2.2 3.2 4.2 5.2 6.2 outcomes 5.3 6.3 1.4 2.4 5.4 6.4 1.5 2.5 Figure 4.1.4 The detail for Figure 4.1.4 is shown in Figure 4.1.5. The ‘Addition’ is again subdivided into five definite skill-lines or skill- ladders. The learning outcomes, defined by the expectation of the curriculum, that lie on a particular skill-line or skill-ladder clearly reflect development of a particular skill from one year to the next. Therefore as a pupil achieves successive learning outcomes along a skill- line or up a skill-ladder, it follows that there is increasing competence by the pupil in that skill. Figure 4.1.5 shows a more detailed breakdown of the skill-lines that can be created within the sub-strand of ‘Addition’. The skill-lines shown in Figure 4.1.5 are: - decomposing numbers - adding whole numbers - adding decimals - adding fractions - completing addition statements The placing of outcomes under each year is given as a guide only. Some pupils will achieve outcomes before the expected year; some pupils will achieve outcomes in the expected year; and some pupils will achieve outcomes after the expected year. The fact that all pupils do not achieve the outcomes at the same time simply reflects the reality of learning. The important point to bear in mind is that pupils should be given opportunity to demonstrate success at a learning outcome, on as many occasions as are required. Where a pupil misses success at a learning outcome, you will need to provide specific guidance to that pupil in order that there is a possibility of improvement before the next opportunity to demonstrate achievement of the learning outcome. 82 The learning outcomes represented in Figure 4.1.4 by the numbers in the cells are listed in Figure 4.1.5. Since language is the basis for literacy, and mathematics is the basis for numeracy, it follows that it should be possible to monitor the progress of pupils along strands that are identified as contributing to literacy and numeracy. Addition Learning outcomes: Pupils can: 1.1 decompose numbers up to 20 1.2 ad numbers up to 20 1.4 add fractions pictorially using ½, ¼ and 1 whole 1.5 complete addition statement of the form a + … = b 2.1 decompose numbers up to 100 2.2 add numbers up to 100 – no carrying 2.4 add fractions pictorially using ⅓, ⅔, ⅛ 2.5 complete addition statement of the form a + … + b = c 3.1 decompose numbers up to 1000 3.2 add numbers up to 1000 – with and without carrying 4.1 decompose numbers up to 10,000 4.2 add numbers up to 10,000 – with and without carrying 5.1 decompose numbers up to 100,000 5.2 add numbers up to 100,000 – with or without carrying 5.3 add numbers with up to 2 decimal places 5.4 add two fractions with the same 1-digit denominator 6.1 decompose numbers up to 1,000,000 6.2 add numbers up to 1,000,000 – with or without carrying 6.3 add numbers with up to 3 decimal places 6.4 add two fractions with the same 2-digit denominator and add two fractions with different 1-digit denominators Figure 4.1.5 83 4.2 Preparing a Format for Learning Outcomes There are several advantages in establishing a format for presenting the learning outcomes associated with a Key Strand or Sub-strand within a course. Firstly, the format allows for an outcome to be quickly identified. Secondly, the formatting should reinforce the concept of development of pupil competency as the pupil moves along a skill-line or up a skill- ladder within a Key Strand or Sub-strand. The development of literacy and numeracy is particularly well suited to representation in this way. Thirdly, the formatting can be a useful guide to the production of suitably designed records of achievement. The figures shown here in Figures 4.2 are incomplete, but they provide a framework by which a complete course can be broken down into learning outcomes. Figure 4.2.2 identifies the Key Strands, each of which is coded with a Roman numeral. E.g. Key Strand III is Operations Figure 4.2.3 identifies the Sub-strands that lie within the Key Strand of ‘Operations’, each of which is coded with a capital letter. E.g. Sub-strand A is Addition Figure 4.2.4 identifies individual skill-lines that lie within the Sub-strand ‘Addition’, each of which is coded with an Arabic numeral. E.g. Skill-line 3 is decimals So the learning outcome coded as: III A 4.3 can be traced as: Pupils can add numbers with two decimal places Key Strand Sub- Anticipated Skill-line Learning ‘Operations’ Strand ‘Year’ ‘decimals’ Outcome ‘Addition’ III A 4 3 4.3 Figure 4.2.1 84 Master Table - Mathematics Learning Outcomes Key Strand Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3 Grade 4 Grade 5 Grade 6 I.Numeration A. Count B. Read & Write C. Distinguish II.Ordering A. Compare B. Interpolate C. Estimate D. Order E. Count & Write III.Operations A. Addition 1.1, 1.2, 1.4, 2.1, 2.2, 2.4, 2.5, 3.1, 3.2, 3.6 4.1, 4.2, 4.6 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 1.5, 1.6 2.6 5.4, 5.6 6.4, 6.6 B. Subtraction C. Multiplication D. Division IV.Geometry A. Orientation B. Plane shapes C. Solids D. Drawing V. Measurement A. Length B. Area C. Mass D. Volume E. Money F. Time G. Statistics Figure 4.2.2 85 Key Strand – ‘Operations’ Sub-strands Learning Outcomes Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3 Grade 4 Grade 5 Grade 6 A. Addition 1. Decompose 1.1 2.1 3.1 4.1 5.1 6.1 2. Whole numbers 1.2 2.2 3.2 4.2 5.2 6.2 3. Decimals 5.3 6.3 4. Fractions 1.4 2.4 5.4 6.4 5. Complete statement 1.5 2.5 B. Subtraction Whole numbers Decimals Fractions Complete statement C. Multiplication Whole numbers Decimals Fractions D. Division Whole numbers Decimals Figure 4.2.3 86 Sub-strand – ‘Addition’ Skill-lines Learning Outcomes Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3 Grade 4 Grade 5 Grade 6 1. Decompose 1.1 2.1 3.1 4.1 5.1 6.1 Numbers up to Numbers up to Numbers up to Numbers up to Numbers up to Numbers up to 10 50 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 2. Whole numbers 1.2 2.2 3.2 4.2 5.2 6.2 Sum up to 10 Sum up to 50 – Sum to 100 – with Sum up to Sum up to 10,000 Sum up to no regrouping and without 1,000 with and with and without 100,000 with and regrouping without regrouping without regrouping regrouping 3. Decimals 5.3 6.3 Up to 2 decimal Up to 3 decimal places places 4. Fractions 1.4 2.4 5.4 6.4 Pictorial addition Pictorial Two fractions with Two fractions of fractions addition of same 1 digit with same 2-digit involving: fractions denominator denominator 1 whole involving: and ½ ⅓ Two fractions ¼ ⅔ with different 1- ⅛ digit denominators or 2-digit denominators of the type 16 and 32; 5 and 25;12 and 48; 5. Complete 1.5 2.5 Addition Statement Type : Type: a + = b a + + b = c up to 20 up to 100 Figure 4.2.4 87 Figure 4.2.2 shows how a complete course such as Mathematics can be tabulated to highlight Key Strands and Sub-strands. Each cell in the table houses the learning outcomes within a Sub-strand for a given year. Figure 4.2.3, takes one Key Strand ‘Operations’ and shows how the Sub- strands are made up of a series of skill-lines or skill-ladders. Each cell in the table houses a learning outcome identified by a code. Figure 4.2.4 shows a breakdown of the Sub-strand ‘Addition’. It shows the five skill-lines of: 1. Decomposing numbers 2. Adding whole numbers 3. Adding decimals 4. Adding fractions 5. Completing addition statements Each cell in the table houses a learning outcome statement. A skill-line is a series of learning outcomes relating to a particular skill which shows the anticipated development of the skill from one year to the next. Each of the five ‘Addition’ skills listed above, has its own skill-line. The learning outcomes that form a skill-line build upon each other. It is usual for a learning outcome some way along a skill-line to be achieved, only after the earlier learning outcomes have been achieved. This provides us with a direct measure of the progress or level of achievement of a pupil on a particular skill. Figure 4.2.5 shows how a complete course such as Language can be tabulated to highlight Key Strands and Sub-strands. Each cell in the table houses the learning outcomes within a skill-ladder for a given year. Figure 4.2.6 takes one Key Strand ‘Grammar’ and shows how it is made up of a series of skill-ladders. Figure 4.2.7 and Figure 4.2.8 show the skill-ladders that describe the learning outcomes that the curriculum anticipates will be reached by pupils in specific years for the ‘use of verbs’ and the ‘construction of sentences’. The nature of a mathematics course means that skill-lines are more abundant than skill-ladders, and conversely, the nature of a language course means that skill-ladders are more abundant than skill-lines. 88 Master Table - Language Learning Outcomes Key Strand Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3 Grade 4 Grade 5 Grade 6 I.Listening A. Identify B. Distinguish C. Comprehend II.Speaking A. Pronounce B. Communicate III.Reading A. Identify B. Express IV.Writing A. Composition Short, simple, Short, simple, Complex on a Paragraphs in the Logically Variety of sentence personal connected on a connected topic construction of a ordered and types topic composition grammatically correct to 150 words V. Handwriting A. Shape B. Copy C. Speed V1. Grammar A. Identify Parts B. Verb Tenses C. Use of adjectives D. Punctuation E. Time markers F. Sentence Complexity Figure 4.2.5 89 Key Strand - Grammar Skill-ladders Learning Outcomes Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3 Grade 4 Grade 5 Grade 6 Identify Parts Common nouns, Adverbs, Abstract nouns verbs, pronouns, conjunctions adjectives Verb Tenses Uses common Uses common Uses continuous Uses conditional Evidence of verbs with both verbs with future form of common form of common expanded present and past tense verbs verbs repertoire of tenses verbs Use of Adjectives Size, colour, Regular Irregular appearance, comparative and comparative and superlative superlative Punctuation Uses full stops Uses commas, Uses exclamation and capital speech marks, marks letters question marks Time Markers Uses: Uses: Uses: today, tomorrow, always, never, next, often, yesterday, sometimes before, after Sentence Simple Simple connected Complex Paragraphing Logically ordered Varied range Complexity Sentence Simple to complex Complex to Transformation simple Figure 4.2.6 90 Skill-ladder – ‘Verbs’ As for Grades 1-5, and; uses an expanded repertoire Grade 6 of verbs. As for Grade 1-4, and; employs a range of tenses in extended pieces Grade 5 of writing and in short speeches. As for Grades 1-3, and; appropriate use of the Grade 4 conditional verb form in complex sentence construction. As for Grades 1-2, and; uses a range of verb forms when constructing complex sentences. Writes verb forms in either Grade 3 active or passive voice. Modifies the verb when constructing negative and interrogative sentences. As for Grade 1, and; uses differing commonly met verbs within simple Grade 2 sentences on a single connected topic. Uses the future form of the verb. Pupil uses commonly met verbs with simple forms of past, present and present continuous, in actions that describe themselves, their family and their immediate Grade 1 surroundings, in simple sentences. Figure 4.2.7 91 Skill-ladder – ‘Sentence Complexity’ As for Grades 1-5, and; writing incorporates a varied Grade 6 range of sentence types. As for Grades 1-4, and; logically orders paragraphs, and sentences Grade 5 within paragraphs. As for Grades 1-3, and; creates paragraphs by Grade 4 clustering related sentences. As for Grades 1-2, and; creates complex sentences from simple Grade 3 sentences. As for Grades 1, and; creates simple sentences that are connected on a Grade 2 common theme. Pupil creates simple sentences that describe themselves, their family and their Grade 1 immediate surroundings. Figure 4.2.8 92 4.3 ‘Writing’ – a Sample Strand ‘Writing’ is one of the Key Strands in a language course and a component of literacy. It should be possible to identify a series of learning outcomes that make up the Key Strand ‘Writing’. The same can be done for the other Key Strands in ‘Language’ such as ‘Listening’, ‘Speaking’, and ‘Reading’. Example learning outcomes are shown in Figure 4.3.4 to Figure 4.3.9. These could be part of a Key Strand in ‘Writing’ covering the six years of primary education. It is very difficult to frame a learning outcome on a skill such as ‘writing’ when so many factors contribute to the standard and quality of the writing. Looking independently at the factors that make a contribution may be helpful, but can never replace the impression of quality that can be judged from the writing. Consider the analogy of judging the quality of a car. Looking at a car and driving a car will leave you with an impression about its quality. That impression might be more useful than would a study of the individual components that make up the engine and body of the car. This means there are subjective elements involved when matching a piece of writing with a particular learning outcome. For this reason, it is best to provide an example of pupil work that everyone agrees is representative of the successfully achieved learning outcome. An additional complication for ‘Language’ relates to the appropriate use of grammar. Each of the outcomes for the Key Strand of ‘Writing’, given as examples below, must be cross-matched with the expected development of grammar at that stage. The Learning Outcomes coded as ‘ LAW1’ represent a skill-ladder in the Key Strand of ‘Writing’. (The interpretation of the code was given in Figure 4.3.2) The skill-ladder is represented as: Grade 1 2 3 4 5 6 Learning outcome 1LAW1 2LAW1 3LAW1 4LAW1 5LAW1 6LAW1 Figure 4.3.1 93 Skill-ladder from the Key Strand ‘Writing’ Code Learning outcome 1LAW1 Pupils can write short, simple, personal sentences using capitals and full stops 2LAW1 Pupils can write short simple sentences on a connected topic, using capitals and full stops. 3LAW1 Pupils can write complex sentences on a connected topic, using a range of punctuation (. , ? “ “ ) 4LAW1 Pupils can paragraph sentences in a meaningful way in the construction of a composition, using appropriate punctuation. (compositions may be – a letter, a personal account, a short story) 5LAW1 Pupils can write logically ordered and grammatically accurate sentences and paragraphs in order to create a composition of at least 150 words in length. 6LAW1 Pupils can write a variety of logically ordered and grammatically accurate sentence types and paragraphs to create a composition of at least 150 words in length. Figure 4.3.2 94 Skill-ladder from the Key Strand – ‘Writing’ 6LAW1 As for 5LAW1, and, pupil can write a variety of logically ordered and grammatically correct sentence types and paragraphs to create a Grade 6 composition of at least 150 words in length. 5LAW1 As for 4LAW1, and, pupil can write logically ordered and grammatically correct sentences and Grade 5 paragraphs in order to create a composition of at least 150 words in length. 4LAW1 As for 3LAW1, and, pupil can paragraph sentences in a Grade 4 meaningful way in the construction of a composition, using appropriate punctuation. (compositions may be – a letter, a personal account, a short story). 3LAW1 As for 2LAW1, and, pupil can write complex sentences on a connected topic using a range of punctuation (. , ? “ “). Grade 3 2LAW1 As for 1LAW1, and, pupil can write short simple sentences on a Grade 2 connected topic using capital and full stops. 1LAW1 Pupil can write short, simple, personal sentences using capitals and full stops. Grade 1 Figure 4.3.3 95 Figure 4.3.4 to Figure 4.3.9 shows the LAW1 learning outcomes, together with pieces of writing done by pupils that reflect the expectation of the learning outcome. Learning outcome 1LAW1 Grade 1 Pupils can write short, simple, personal sentences using capitals and full stops. Exemplar pupil work: - I walk to school. - My father is a shopkeeper. - We sleep under a net. Figure 4.3.4 Learning outcome 2LAW1 Grade 2 Pupils can write short simple sentences on a connected topic, using capitals and full stops. Exemplar pupil work: - The school is far from my house. We walk there every morning. - I buy rice at the store. My mother cooks it on the fire. - My father has a bicycle. We cleaned it on Saturday. Figure 4.3.5 Learning outcome 3LAW1 Grade 3 Pupils can write complex sentences on a connected topic, using a range of punctuation (. , ? “ “ ) Exemplar pupil work: - The bus went around the island and picked up passengers on its way. The driver shouted to people he passed, “Are you coming on the bus?” Some of the people were adults but most were children. - After supper we went to the beach, then we saw that the tide was out. So we could not swim and we went home again. - My sister had her birthday and lots of friends came to our house. She said “thank you” to every one, because she was given nice presents. Figure 4.3.6 96 Learning outcome 4LAW1 Grade 4 Pupils can paragraph sentences in a meaningful way in the construction of a composition, using appropriate punctuation. (compositions may be – a letter, a personal account, a short story) Exemplar pupil work: A personal account My mother called me early in the morning, “Get up!”. I got up straight away because I was excited. It was my first day to go to see my cousin. I didn’t have much time to eat breakfast. It was already seven o’clock and the bus left at half past seven. I ran with my brother to the bus stop and we were just in time to catch the bus. We spent the day with my cousin playing lots of different games, but in the end we had to go back home. I was sad to leave. Figure 4.3.7 Learning outcome 5LAW1 Grade 5 Pupils can write logically ordered and grammatically accurate sentences and paragraphs in order to create a composition of at least 150 words in length. Exemplar pupil work: Imaginative prose It was warm near the surface, but I noticed it got colder as I went deeper. This didn’t matter because I enjoyed the water wherever I was. Lots and lots of us would swim around, sometimes playing, sometimes eating, and sometimes swimming away very fast when there was danger near. I remember my mother telling me, “Always stay with your friends and you will be safe”. But I have a problem. I like adventure. It was Tuesday last week, and I decided to go swimming in the very deep, dark water and look for new kinds of food. I was on my own. Well I thought I was on my own, but when I turned around there was a really big fish looking at me. It had really big sharp teeth and I was scared. Luckily I was small enough to quickly go into the space between some rocks where I was safe. I stayed there until my enemy went away. After hiding for a long time I decided to swim back to join all my other fish friends. I was safe in the middle of them all. Figure 4.3.8 97 Learning outcome 6LAW1 Grade 6 Pupils can write a variety of logically ordered and grammatically accurate sentence types and paragraphs to create a composition of at least 150 words in length. Exemplar pupil work: Descriptive prose The mountain was so beautiful. It was not just the way that it seemed to reach up like a giant into the clouds. The colours and sounds were so different from those in the village. All the different kinds of trees covering the mountain had different shades of green. From a long way off it looked like a painting. The closer we got, the less we could see of the mountain, but the more we could smell the forest and hear the noise of the birds. Some were twittering, “tweet-tweet, tweet-tweet”, others were screaming “sceeeeech-sceeech”. Occasionally a bird flew out of a nearby bush and a rainbow of colour would hit my eye. But the moment I remember was when an unusual sound could be heard. Curiosity made me go towards the sound and this meant cutting through the long grass and bushes because there was no path. The sound got louder and louder, until suddenly in front of my eyes was an amazing sight. First a pool in the river, boiling like a pot on a fire. Then my eye followed the water tumbling into the pool. Up and up and up went my eye, but I couldn’t see the top. It was so high. A waterfall, what a sight! Figure 4.3.9 98 4.4 Matching Questions to Learning Outcomes In the section on “Setting the platform for learning” (2.1) it outlines the structure of objectives as well as the nature and structure of learning outcomes. Learning outcomes must be phrased in language that is very specific. It should then be possible to construct a question that will test the specific learning outcome in an effort to determine where each pupil stands. If questions are constructed for the specific learning outcomes in a skill- line or in a skill-ladder, then a direct measure of progress from one year to the next for a given skill can be measured and monitored. This makes it possible to use such information to monitor the progress of each pupil over a skill-line or skill-ladder. Let’s take the Sub-strand of ‘Addition’ in the Key Strand ‘Operations’. There are five skill-lines as shown in Figure 4.2.4 : 1. Decomposing numbers 2. Adding whole numbers 3. Adding decimals 4. Adding fractions 5. Completing addition statements Each of these five skill-lines has its own learning objectives that form the basis of specific questions. The following figures, from Figure 4.4.1 to Figure 4.4.20, give examples of this being done. 1 0 Skill-line Decomposing numbers Grade 1 Pupil can decompose numbers up to 10. Show the 10s and Units in: 1. 10 1 0 2. 9 9 Figure 4.4.1 1 0 Skill-line Decomposing numbers Grade 2 Pupil can decompose numbers up to 50. Show the 10s and Units in: 3. 15 1 0 5 4. 45 4 0 5 Figure 4.4.2 99 1 0 0 Skill-line Decomposing numbers Grade 3 Pupil can decompose numbers up to 100. Show the 10s and Units in: 5. 53 5 0 3 6. 97 9 0 7 Figure 4.4.3 1 0 0 0 Skill-line Decomposing numbers Grade 4 Pupil can decompose numbers up to 1, 000. Show the 100s, 10s and Units in: 7. 74 7 0 4 8. 769 7 0 0 6 0 9 Figure 4.4.4 1 0 0 0 0 Skill-line Decomposing numbers Grade 5 Pupil can decompose numbers up to 10, 000. Show the 1 000s, 100s, 10s and Units in: 9. 947 9 0 0 4 0 7 10. 8 502 8 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 2 Figure 4.4.5 100 1 0 0 0 0 0 Skill-line Decomposing numbers Grade 6 Pupil can decompose numbers up to 100, 000. Show the 10 000s, 1 000s, 100s, 10s and Units in: 11. 9, 679 9 0 0 0 6 0 0 7 09 12. 84, 036 8 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 06 Figure 4.4.6 Skill-line Summing whole numbers Grade 1 Pupil can sum numbers up to 10 1. 5 + 6 = 2. 3 + 2 + 4 = 3. John had 4 buttons on his shirt, and Mere had 5 buttons on her shirt. How many buttons do they have altogether on their shirts? Figure 4.4.7 Skill-line Summing whole numbers Grade 2 Pupil can sum numbers up to 50, with no regrouping 4. 20 + 30 = 5. 22 + 16 = 6. 10 + 22 + 14 = 7. Class 2H has 17 pupils and class 2K has 26 pupils. How many pupils altogether in the two classes. Figure 4.4.8 101 Skill-line Summing whole numbers Grade 3 Pupil can sum numbers up to 100, with and without regrouping 8. 80 9. 45 10. 34 15 16 27 ----- 20 ------- ----- ------- ------- ------- 11. Forty eight people from my village attended the meeting, and thirty four people from the next village attended the meeting. How many people from the two villages attended the meeting? Figure 4.4.9 Skill-line Summing whole numbers Grade 4 Pupil can sum numbers up to 1,000, with and without regrouping 12. 600 13. 461 14. 530 85 280 305 30 107 179 -------- ------- -------- -------- ------- -------- 15. A bicycle costs $300. John has $75, Ken has $108, and Mere has $54. Do they have enough money to buy the bicycle? Figure 4.4.10 Skill-line Summing whole numbers Grade 5 Pupil can sum numbers up to 10 000, with and without regrouping 16. 5 500 17. 6 040 18. 4 720 2 600 505 3 470 1 050 78 1 624 ----------- --------- --------- ----------- --------- --------- 19. A 100 ml bottle can hold about 750 grains of rice. About how many grains of rice can a 1litre bottle and a 300 ml bottle hold altogether? Figure 4.4.11 102 Skill-line Summing whole numbers Grade 6 Pupil can sum numbers up to 100, 000, with and without regrouping 20. 50 500 21. 56 007 22. 78 531 20 077 5 505 21 469 8 415 38 270 ----------- ----------- ----------- ----------- ----------- ----------- 23. John’s father bought a lorry that cost $80 000, but he had to borrow $40 000 from the bank. Each year he must give back $8 000 to the bank. How many years does it take John’s father to repay the money to the bank? Figure 4.4.12 Skill-line Adding decimals Grade 5 Pupil can sum numbers with 2 decimal places. 1. 56·21 2. 360·04 3. 457·81 2·47 59·85 371·39 ----------- ----------- ----------- ----------- ----------- ----------- 4. Add 72.01 and 32.90 Figure 4.4.13 Skill-line Adding decimals Grade 6 Pupil can sum numbers with 3 decimal places. · 5. 41·206 6. 21·006 7. 1·804 320·773 33·040 ·006 ----------- 18·077 ·322 ----------- ---------- --------- ---------- --------- 8. Add 16·32 and 12·013 Figure 4.4.14 103 Skill-line Adding Fractions Grade 1 Pupil can add fractions presented pictorially, of 1 whole, 1 and 1 2 4 1. + = 2. + = 3. + = Figure 4.4.15 Skill-line Adding Fractions Grade 2 1 2 1 Pupil can add fractions presented pictorially, of 3 , 3 , 8 4. + = 5. + = 6. + = Figure 4.4.16 = Skill-line Adding Fractions Grade 5 Pupil can add two fractions with the same 1-digit denominator 1 2 3 2 7. 4 + 4 = 8. 8 + 8 = 9. In a class of pupils no-one is exactly 1·30 metres tall, but one quarter of the class is shorter than 1·30 metres. What fraction of the class is more than 1·30 metres tall? Figure 4.4.17 104 Skill-line Adding Fractions Grade 6 Pupil can add two fractions with the same 2-digit denominator, and, add two fractions with different 1-digit denominators or 2-digit denominators that are multiples; 13 5 4 7 10. 20 + 20 = 11. 15 + 15 1 2 3 5 12. 3 + 6 = 13. 12 + 6 1 3 14. 16 + 32 = 2 3 15. Simon spent 5 of his money on a drink and 15 of his money on a stamp for a letter. What fraction of his money did he spend altogether? Figure 4.4.18 Skill-line Complete Statement Grade 1 Pupil can complete a statement of the type: a + = b, up to 20 1. 5 + = 17 2. 9 + = 20 3. Shaun has 15 marbles in his coat pockets. Eight marbles are in his left pocket, the rest are in his right pocket. How many marbles in his right pocket? Figure 4.4.19 Skill-line Complete Statement Grade 2 Pupil can complete a statement of the type: a + + b = c, up to 100 4. 10 + + 25 = 60 5. 11 + + 27 = 90 6. Lulu is making a necklace from small shells and large shells. She needs to have a total of 80 shells, and has already got the 35 large shells she needs, but only has 24 of the small shells. How many more small shells does she need? Figure 4.4.20 105 The skill-ladder shown in Figure 4.2.7 represents the development of the use of ‘verbs’ in the Key Strand ‘Grammar’ in a Language course. The following figures, 4.4.21 to 4.4.26 show the learning outcomes together with examples of the ‘verbs’ being used as implied by the learning outcome. Skill-ladder Verbs Grade 1 Pupil uses commonly met verbs with simple forms of past, present and present continuous, in actions that describe themselves, their family and their immediate surroundings, in simple sentences. Example: 1. The ball is red. 2. John closed the door 3. I am singing Figure 4.4.21 Skill-ladder Verbs Grade 2 As for Year 1, and; uses differing commonly met verbs within simple sentences on a single connected topic. Uses the future form of the verb. Example: 1. I brush my teeth, They are clean. 2. Tom went to the shop. He bought a chocolate. 3. Father is cooking the food. We are helping him. 4. She will go to the game. Her friend Ann will play netball. Figure 4.4.22 Skill-ladder Verbs Grade 3 As for Years 1-2, and; uses a range of verb forms when constructing complex sentences. Writes verb forms in either active or passive voice. Modifies the verb when constructing negative and interrogative sentences. Example: 1. The carpenter is making a chair so that we have enough to sit on. 2. We caught plenty of fish in the net but some of them were too small. 3. I will ride my bicycle to the beach and then I will swim with my friend. 4. Yona spent money on biscuits but I didn’t like the taste of them. 5. The bus doesn’t go to the cinema, it stops at the bottom of the hill. 6. Aren’t you coming to the party? 7. Weren’t the boats moving fast? 8. “I am making cakes today”. 9. The cook said she was making cakes today. 10. It is only Saturday, but don’t you think it seems like Monday? Figure 4.4.23 106 Skill-ladder Verbs Grade 4 As for Years 1-3, and; appropriate use of the conditional verb form in complex sentence construction 1. If it rains on Friday my mother will not go to the market. 2. When the moon is big the tides are very high. Figure 4.4.24 Skill-ladder Verbs Grade 5 As for Years 1-4, and; employs a range of tenses in extended pieces of writing and in short speeches. It will be Christmas day next week and I am looking forward to seeing my big sister. If the aeroplane doesn’t break down she will fly to Tanna on Wednesday. Last week it didn’t fly because of the bad weather. Most of the family will be together and I am hoping that everyone will have a good time. I spoke to my sister on the telephone and she said, “You must meet me at the airport”. I told my uncle that my sister said we were to meet her at the airport, and he agreed to bring his truck. Figure 4.4.25 Skill-ladder Verbs Grade 6 As for Years 1-5, and; uses an expanded repertoire of verbs. I chose a comedy film but that was not what the others wanted. We argued about it for a long time, until in the end we agreed to go to see the thriller which was on at 2 pm. We travelled on a bus from the village to town, and we behaved as though it was out first time! The driver must have thought we were silly, but he said nothing until we were getting off the bus. “Enjoy your film, I shall be driving the bus this evening, and will expect a report on the film”. Figure 4.4.26 107 4.5 Samples from different courses This section carries sample materials on skill lines and skill ladders developed for courses in Language, Mathematics, Social Science and Science. 4.5.1 Sample Materials for a Language Course Course: Language Key-Strand: Grammar Objective: Recognize and use appropriate letter case, and use punctuation The following pages carry examples of : • A skill-ladder for a set of related learning outcomes • A table of achievement levels for the learning outcomes forming the skill-ladder • A set of questions that reflect the expectation of the learning outcomes • A question for the Grade 3 outcome, with a pupil answer at ‘Achievement Level 2’ 108 Learning Outcomes in the Skill-ladder 6LG1:As for Grade 5, and, pupils can use all the different Grade 6 punctuation in dialogues and texts 5LG1: As for Grade 4, and, pupils can use punctuation in short story writing Grade 5 4LG1: As for Grade 3, and, and pupils insert punctuation marks in their appropriate places Grade 4 3LG1:As for Grade 2, and, pupils recognize (!), (“ … “), (‘), and use comma and question mark Grade 3 2LG1: As for Grade 1, and pupils recognize comma, question mark, and are able to use capital letters and full stops Grade 2 1LG1: Pupils can identify upper and lower case letters and full stops Grade 1 Figure 4.5.1 109 Achievement Levels Achievement Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3 Grade 4 Grade 5 Grade 6 Level As for Year 3; As for Year 5; and, and, Can use all the Can recognize different and use all the punctuations in L4 different dialogues and texts punctuation marks As for Year 1; As for Year 2; Can sometimes As for Year 4; Can use and, Can and, make mistakes and, punctuation marks L3 recognize Can recognize in using Can use the accurately and comma and (!), (“…”) and (‘) punctuation punctuation in recognize other question mark, and can use marks. short stories / punctuations used and can use comma and paragraphs in dialogues such as capital letters question (:), colon, semi- and full stops. marks colon, etc. Can identify Can recognize Can use Is uncertain in Can still make Can use upper and upper and comma and using the a few mistakes punctuation marks L2 lower case lower letters question mark punctuation but occasionally GRAMMAR letters and and question but can make marks in make mistakes full stop. mark but mistakes on appropriate sometimes with (!), (“…”) and (‘) places. mistakes with commas Can identify Can user upper Remains Can use a few Remains Remains uncertain L1 upper and case and lower uncertain punctuation uncertain in about placing the lower case case letters but about the use marks using the punctuation in their but sometimes can of commas correctly. punctuation in appropriate places. sometimes make mistakes and question appropriate with mistakes marks places Can not Can not Can not Can not Can not use Can not use L0 identify upper recognize recognize (!), recognize and punctuation in different and lower comma and (“…”) and (‘) use any short stories / punctuations in case letters question mark, and can not punctuation paragraphs dialogues and texts and full stop. and can not use use comma marks capital letters and question and full stops. marks Figure 4.5.2 110 Example questions for Learning Outcomes from Grade 1 to Grade 6 Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3 Grade 4 Grade 5 Grade 6 1.Pupils circle round 1. Pupils put the 1.Pupils group Pupils apply Pupils write their own Pupils rewrite a appropriate capital letters correct words according to appropriate short stories using given dialogue found in the following punctuation and upper and lower punctuation appropriate inserting group of words upper and lower case letters from the learned in Years punctuation. appropriate case letters. given group of 1-3 in the right punctuations (a) Tom, little, bag, come. words places eg. wherever possible. (b) dog, Santo, go, high (a) John is a boy ● (c) She, to, Suva, like (eg) Yesterday after eg. school, I went home 2.Pupils sort the following Jeff, run, come, go, and found my mother My name is Jane letters according to upper (b) Tom has a Dog, Tim, Fred, can, lying in bed. She Can you tell me and lower case letters. ruler walk, Port Vila called me at the top of your name please a c G L K S s a book and a her voice and asked, My name is tom S T v h i H L pen.● 2.Pupils punctuate “Why are you coming Who are your n M Z w the following home late?” “I parents sentences below helped Mr. James to My parents are 3.Sort words with flash clean our classroom Mr and Mrs wotu cards to form sentences (a) the cat eats a rat because our room was oh I see with full stop (b) come down, Jack so dirty, mum.” I know who they eg. (c) The baby’s are mouth is red. (note: the bold should My parents told I Like to dance (d) I can run fast, be in box) me about them said Jane. because they are my parents best friends Figure 4.5.3 111 Example question for the Grade 3 learning outcome, together with a pupil answer judged to be achievement level 2. Grade 3 Learning Outcome, Achievement Level 2: Can use comma and question mark but can make mistakes on (!), (“…”) and (') Children are asked to punctuate the following sentences, using the following: (?), (,), (!), (“…”), ('). 1. When do you go to school 2. What a beautiful day said James. 3. I haven t done my homework said T om. 4. My father my sister and I go to church every Sunday. Student’s answer 1. When do you go to school? 2. “What a beautiful day” said James. 3. I haven’t done my homework, said Tom. 4. My father, my sister and I go to church every Sunday. 4.5.2 Sample Materials for a Mathematics Course Course: Mathematics Key-Strand: Numeration Objective: Read and write numbers in both words and figures The following pages carry examples of: • A skill-ladder for a set of related learning outcomes • A table of achievement levels for the learning outcomes with Level 3 forming the skill-line • A set of questions that reflect the expectation of the learning outcomes 112 Learning Outcomes in the Skill-ladder As for Grade 5; and Can read and write numbers from 1 million to 1 billion in words and figures Grade 6 correctly reflecting placement As for Grade 4; and Can write numbers from 10,000 to 1,000,000 in words and figures correctly reflecting placement Grade 5 As for Grade 3; and, Can write numbers from 1,000 to 10,000 in words and figures correctly reflecting Grade 4 placement As for Grade 2; and, Can write numbers from 100 to 1,000 in worlds and figures correctly reflecting placement Grade 3 As for Grade 1; and, Can recognize and write numbers from 20 to 100 in words and figures correctly reflecting placement Grade 2 Can write numbers from 1 to 20 in words and figures correctly reflecting placement Grade 1 Figure 4.5.4 113 Achievement Levels for the Learning Outcomes from Year 1 to Year 6 Achievement Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3 Grade 4 Grade 5 Grade 6 Level Can write As for Grade 1; As for Grade 2; As for Grade 3; As for Grade 4; As for Grade 5; and numbers from and Can and and and Can read and write 1 to 20 in recognize and Can write Can write numbers Can write numbers from 1 words and write numbers numbers from from 1,000 to numbers from million to 1 billion L3 figures from 20 to 100 100 to 1,000 in 10,000 in words 10,000 to in words and figures correctly in words and worlds and and figures 1,000,000 in correctly reflecting reflecting figures correctly figures correctly correctly reflecting words and figures placement placement reflecting reflecting placement correctly placement placement reflecting placement Can write Can recognize Can write Can write numbers Can write Can read and write numbers from and write numbers from from 1,000 to numbers from numbers from 1 on L2 1 to 20 in numbers from 100 to 1,000 in 10,000 in either 10,000 to million to 1 billion rati either words or 20 to 100 in either words or words or figures 1,000,000 in in either words or figures either word or figures correctly, but not either words or figures, but not both correctly, but figures correctly, but both figures correctly, Nume not both correctly, but not both but not both not both Attempts to Recognizes and Struggles to Can write a few Can write Still confuses with L1 write numbers writes a few write numbers numbers from numbers from number placement, with incorrect numbers from 100 to 1,000 to 10,000 in 10,000 to 1 when reading and spelling and correctly 1,000 in words figures with few million in figures writing numbers different mistakes with few mistakes from 1 million to 1 position of billion in words and digits figures L0 Can not write Can not Can not write Can not write Can not write Can not read or numbers from recognize and numbers from numbers from numbers from write numbers from 1 to 20 in write numbers 100 to 1,000 in 1,000 to 10,000 in 10,000 to 1 million to 1 billion words or from 20 to 100 words or words or figures 1,000,000 in in words or figures figures in words or figures words or figures figures Figure 4.5.5 114 Questions and Students’ Responses Grade 1 Learning outcome Question a Write the following number in words: 1. 11 Likely students’ responses: L1 leven or elleven or one one (or similar spelling errors) L3 eleven Question b. Write the following number in figures: 1. Seventeen Likely students’ responses: L1 71 or 7 or 1 7 L3 17 Grade 2 Learning Outcome Question a Match the numbers in the left column with the correct words in the right column. 65 • • Seventy four 47 • • Sixty five 56 • • Forty seven 74 • • Fifty six Likely students’ responses: L1 65 • • Seventy four 47 • • Sixty five 56 • • Forty seven 74 • • Fifty six L3 65 • • Seventy four 47 • • Sixty five 56 • • Forty seven 74 • • Fifty six 115 Question b. Write the following number in words: 1. 61 Likely students’ responses L1 Sixteen wan or sixtie one or six one (or similar errors) L3 Sixty Grade 3 Learning Outcome Question a Write the following number in words: 1. 102 Likely students’ responses L1 one zero two or ten and two (or similar errors) L3 One hundred and two Question b Write the following number in figures 1. One hundred and two Likely students’ responses L1 100 2 or similar errors L3 102 Grade 4 Learning Outcome Question a Write the following number in figures: 1. Six thousand and twelve 116 Likely students’ responses L1 6 1,000 12 or 6,00012 (or similar errors) L3 6,012 Question b Write the following number in words: 1. 1234 Likely students’ responses L1 one two three four or twelve thirty four (or similar errors) L3 One thousand two hundred and thirty-four Grade 5 Learning Outcome Question a Write the following number in figures 1. One hundred and ninety eight thousand six hundred Likely students’ responses L1 100 98000 600 or 1986000 (or similar errors) L3 198,600 Question b Write the following number in words: 1. 999,999 Likely students’ responses L1 Nine nine nine nine nine nine or nine hundred and ninety nine hundred and nine hundred and ninety nine L3 Nine hundred and ninety nine thousand nine hundred and ninety nine 117 Grade 6 Learning Outcome Question a Write the following number in figures 1. One billion three million and one hundred thousand Likely students’ responses L1 1,3001000 or similar errors L3 1,300,100,000 Question b Write the following number in words: 1. 4,008,705 Likely students’ responses L1 four zero zero eight seven zero and five (or similar errors) L3 four million and eight thousand seven hundred and five Student response for Grade 3 learning outcome Learning Outcome: Can write numbers from 100 to 1,000 in words and figures correctly reflecting placement. Question: Write this number in words: a. 444 Students’ answers: Level 1 Four four four Level 3 or 4 Four hundred and forty-four 118 4.5.3 Sample Materials for a Social Science Course Course: Social Science Key-Strand: Changes in the Environment Objective: Identifies change, and reason for change in a range of specified environments, and where necessary offers solutions to resulting problems. The following pages carry examples of: • A skill-ladder for a set of related learning outcomes • A table of achievement levels for the learning outcomes forming the skill-ladder • A set of questions that reflect the expectation of the learning outcomes • A set of pupil answers that reflect the specified achievement level. 119 Learning Outcomes in the Skill-ladder As for Grade 9, and, Can explain and give at least one example of how our environment is changing at a local level, Grade 10 and one example of how our environment is changing at the global level; in each case, can suggest at least 2 solutions to the problems arising from these changes. As for Grade 8, and, Can describe and explain 3 ways in which each of our urban, cultural and political environments are Grade 9 changing. As for Grade 7, and, Can describe how 3 different types of natural environment (tropical rain forest, hot desert, tundra) are changing, and identify at least one way Grade 8 in which human activities are causing these changes in each type. Can identify 5 different kinds of cultural or natural environment (family, school, community, islands, and world) and describe at least 2 ways in which each of these has Grade 7 changes. Figure 4.5.6 120 Social Science Achievement Grade 7 Grade 8 Grade 9 Grade 10 Level Can identify 5 As for Grade 7, and As for Grades 7 and 8, As for Grades 7, 8, 9 and different kinds of Can describe how 3 and Can explain and give at cultural or natural different types of Can describe and least one example of how environment (family, natural environment explain 3 ways in our environment is school, community, (tropical rain forest, which each of our changing at a local level, L3 islands, and world) hot desert, tundra) are urban, cultural and and one example of how our and describe at least changing, and identify political environments environment is changing at 2 ways in which at least one way in are changing. the global level; in each each of these has which human activities case, can suggest at least 2 changes. are causing these solutions to the problems changes in each type. arising from these changes. Can identify at least Can describe how 2 Can describe 2 ways in Can explain and given an 4 kinds of different types of which each of our example of either changes environment and natural environment urban, cultural and in our environment at the L2 describe at least one are changing; and for political environments local level, or how our change that has one of these, identify are changing, and give environment is changing at the Environment taken place one way in which reasons for at least one the global level; can suggest n i human activities are of these changes in one solution to the causing these changes. each. problems arising from these g es changes. Can identify 2 or 3 Can describe one way Can describe at least Can give an example of a Chan kinds of in which one type of one way in which each change in our environment environment, and natural environment is of our urban, cultural at either local or global L1 can describe at least changing. and political level, but cannot explain one change that has environments is this change or give a taken place in one of changing but cannot solution to the problems these. explain why. arising. Cannot identify any Cannot describe Cannot describe or Cannot identify any change kind of environment changes in any type of explain any change in our environment at local L0 or describe any natural environment, taking place in our or global level, nor offer any change taking place. nor identify human urban, cultural or solutions to problems activities causing these political environment arising from this change. changes. Figure 4.6.7 121 Grade 7 Learning Outcome: Identify 5 different kinds of cultural or natural environment (family, school, community, island, and world) and describe at least 2 ways in which each of these has changed. Questions: 1. State 5 examples of environments found around you. 2. Which 2 changes have taken place in each of these environments in the last 10 years L3 Pupil Answer 1. Family, school, community, island, world i) Changes in the family a) size is reducing b) single parenting ii) Changes in school a) more schools with big populations b) less space in schools iii) Changes in the community a) use of new technology b) new ways of dressing iv) Changes in islands a) pollution of beaches b) destruction of vegetation v) Changes in the world a) use of computers and machines b) global warming Grade 8 Learning Outcome: Describe how 3 different types of natural environment (tropical rain forest, hot desert, tundra) are changing and identify at least one way in which human activities are causing these changes. Questions: 1. State one way in which 3 different types of natural environment are changing 2. In the environments identified in Question 1, state one way of how human activities are causing these changes. 122 L2 Pupil Answer 1. Tropical rain forest disappearing due to logging activities Hot deserts are increasing due to disappearance of forests 2. Tropical rain forest Human activity increases rate of cutting forest for money, eg. logging, farming. Grade 9 Learning Outcome: Describe and explain 3 ways in which each of our urban, cultural and political environments are changing. Questions: 1. State 3 ways in which the urban, cultural and political environments are changing 2. Give one example of how these environments are changing. L3 Pupil Answer The urban environment is changing because a) the population is increasing b) more roads and houses are being built c) there are problems with litter around the place. Our culture is changing a) our costumes are starting to use modern materials b) we are starting to use new songs in our culture c) some of the old customs are disappearing Politics is interesting a) the politics is trying to be national rather than based on individual islands or island groups b) the francophone and Anglophone systems are coming closer together c) the politics is giving more concern to Vanuatu’s place in the Pacific Grade 10 Learning Outcome: Can explain and give at least one example of how our environment is changing at the local level, and one example of how our environment is changing at the global level; in each case, can suggest at least 2 solutions to the problems arising from these changes. 123 Questions: 1. Give one example of how the environment is changing at the local and global level 2. Suggest two solutions to the problems arising from the changes mentioned in Question 1. L3 Pupil Answer 1. Increase combustion of fossil fuel (eg. heavy machineries, cars, etc.) lead to increase air pollution Increase in air pollution leads to damaging the ozone layer thus leading to problem of global warming and sea level rise 2. Reduce combustion of fossil fuel; use alternative sources of fuels, such as renewable resources (eg. solar, etc.) 4.5.4 Sample Materials for a Science Course Course: Science Key-Strand: Energy Objective: Understand the role of the Sun in weather, and as the ultimate source of energy The following pages carry examples of : • A skill-ladder for a set of related learning outcomes • A table of achievement levels for the learning outcomes forming the skill-ladder • A set of pupil answers that reflect the expectation of the learning outcomes 124 Learning Outcomes in the Skill-ladder As for Grade 5, and, Can list five renewable energy sources Can explain why an energy source is a Grade 6 renewable energy source As for Grade 4, and, Can list 7 different forms of energy Grade 5 As for Grade 3, and, Can explain why we use wood and gas as fuel, using the word sun in his/her sentence Grade 4 As for Grade 2, and, Can list 2 uses of the sun’s energy Grade 3 As for Grade 1, and, Can state the ultimate source of energy Grade 2 Can observe and state in simply short sentences, what the weather is Can give simple predictions of what the weather will be like when the sun is bright and when it Grade 1 is dull Figure 4.5.8 125 Achievement Levels Achievement Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3 Grade 4 Grade 5 Grade 6 Level Can explain Can list 7 As for Grade 5, and, Can why we use different list five renewable energy wood and gas forms of sources L3 as fuel, using energy Can explain why an the word sun in energy source is a his/her renewable energy source sentence Can observe and Can state the Can list 2 Can explain Can list at Can take 3 renewable state in simply ultimate uses of the why we use least 4 energy sources, and short sentences, source of sun’s energy either wood or different explain why each source what the weather energy gas as fuel, forms of is a renewable energy is using the word energy source sun in his/her L2 Can give simple sentence predictions of what the weather Energy will be like when the sun is bright and when it is dull Can observe but Can list some Can list one Can explain Can list at Can list at least 2 confusing sources of use of the why we use least one from different forms of energy statements are energy but sun’s energy either wood or of energy given not the sun gas as a fuel, Can take 1 renewable but no energy source, and Can make some reference is explain why each is a L1 predictions made to the renewable energy source. sun Does not observe Doe not know Can not list Can not explain Can not list Can not explain why L0 or make the ultimate any use of the why we use any form of certain energy sources predictions source of sun’s energy wood and gas energy are regarded as energy as fuel renewable, nor offer any examples Figure 4.6.9 126 Exemplar pupil answers for the learning outcomes Learning outcome 1LAE1 Grade 1 Pupils are able to observe and state in simple short sentences, what the weather is. Exemplar pupil work: - It is sunny - It is cloudy - It is raining Learning outcome 1LAE2 Grade 1 Pupils are able to give simple predictions of what the weather will be like when the sun is bright and when it is dull. Exemplar pupil work: - When the sun is bright, it will be hot - When the sun is dull, it will be cooler - When the sun is dull, it may rain Learning outcome 2LAE1 Grade 2 Pupils are able to state the ultimate source of energy Exemplar pupil work: - The sun gives energy - All energy comes from the sun Learning outcome 3LAE1 Grade 3 Pupils are able to list 2 uses of the sun’s energy Exemplar pupil work: - The sun keeps us warm - The sun keeps us healthy Learning outcome 4LAE1 Grade 4 Achievement Level 3 Pupils are able to explain why we use wood and gas as fuel, using the word sun in his/her sentence. Exemplar pupil work: - Wood is used as fuel because, as a plant it stores energy from the sun, then when we burn it, it gives us energy. - Gas is used as fuel, because gas comes from tiny animals that were buried deep in the earth millions of years ago, and these tiny animals get their energy from plants, and plants get their energy from the sun. When we burn the gas, it gives us energy. 127 Learning outcome 4LAE2 Grade 4 Achievement Level 2 Pupils are able to explain why we use either wood or gas as fuel, using the word sun in his/her sentence. Exemplar pupil work: Either - Wood is used as fuel because, as a plant it stores energy from the sun, then when we burn it, it gives us energy. Or - Gas is used as fuel, because gas comes from tiny animals that were buried deep in the earth millions of years ago, and these tiny animals get their energy from plants, and plants get their energy from the sun. When we burn the gas, it gives us energy. Learning outcome 5LAE1 Grade 5 Pupils are able to list 7 different forms of energy Exemplar pupil work: - The 7 forms of energy are: (1) Heat energy, (2) Light energy, (3) Sound energy, (4) Stored energy, (5) Movement energy, (6) Electrical energy, (7) Nuclear energy Learning outcome 6LAE1 Grade 6 Pupils are able to list 5 different renewable energy sources Exemplar pupil work: - The 5 different renewable energy sources are (1) Sunlight energy, (2) Wind energy, (3) Wave energy, (4) River energy, (5) Hot rocks energy Learning outcome 6LAE2 Grade 6 Pupils are able to explain why an energy source is a renewable energy source. Exemplar pupil work: - Sunlight energy is a renewable energy source, because we cannot use up the sun’s light - Wind is a renewable energy source, because we cannot use up the wind - Wave is a renewable energy source, because we cannot use up the waves 128 Chapter Five 5.1 Developing activities that promote learning Preparing activities for pupils to do is also part of the planning for the lesson. It involves the process of designing what pupils will actually do during the lesson. By pupils doing the activities you will be in a position to gather the evidence you need about the achievement of your pupils. The activities you develop for your pupils can be either informal or formal but they present opportunities for you to collect information so you are able to gauge whether individual pupils or groups of pupils are actually learning. At the heart of the activities you develop are learning outcomes. An important aspect of the various activities is that wherever possible the pupils are actively involved, not only in completing the activities, but also in a range of ways that fosters interest in their own progress. Those ways are listed below, and are to be found woven into the various activities described later in this chapter. • Interaction with the teacher during periods of question and answer exchange • The process of marking and checking their own work • The process of marking and checking the work of other pupils • Following up on teacher marking by eliciting feedback • Assistance provided to fellow pupils following personal achievement • Self evaluation based on the question ‘Am I sure, or, am I uncertain?’ • Designing activities based on a learning outcome for other pupils to complete • Self monitoring along a sequence towards a learning outcome • Maintaining their own attainment records • Selecting work that demonstrates success, and building a portfolio It is hoped that you will be able to use some of the ideas presented here to develop your own activities for the purpose of helping your pupils to achieve their learning outcomes. Essentially the activities are a cross section of styles for collecting information about pupil performance. You will need to be selective when choosing a style for a specific purpose. Some styles are clearly more suited for particular learning outcomes than are other styles. A development cycle for activities designed to improve teaching and learning is shown in Figure 5.1.1. 129 When you are considering or dev eloping any activity for your pupils, it will be useful to cross match the 10 steps shown in the cycle with your development and use of the activities in the classroom. Step 10: If yes – hold for future inclusion in teaching If no - redesign Step 2: Plan an activity focused on the learning outcome Step 1: Focus on a Step 3: specific learning Teach the lesson covering outcome that learning outcome Step 9: Decide if the task has helped to Step 4: improve teaching Children do and learning the activity Step 8: Step 5: Give children the Collect results; and feedback data provide feedback Step 7: Step 6: Int n e t rpre rpr t the t th re sults Analyze data and prepare par a a for feedback response spons to im to i prove learning Adapted from: Classroom Assessment Techniques, Angelo and Cross, ISBN 1555425003 Figure 5.1.1 The word “activity” as used in this module refers to those occasions that have been planned by you for your pupils to carry out in order to obtain information about the pupils for the purpose of: - monitoring their progress in mastering a particular part of the course, - providing feedback to the pupils on their strengths and weaknesses, - finding areas of success and weakness in your teaching. 130 Well thought-out activities will share certain common elements, and the way in which these links to each other describes the ‘structure’ of the activity. A suggested sequence for developing the activity is shown in the structure below (Figure 5.1.2). A structure for developing what is to be done by the pupils. A title which relates to An isolated course objective which provides Specific learning outcomes that suggest What pupils are expected to achieve and specify The conditions under which the activity is done A structure for determining level of success How the pupil performance is to be judged and A way of recording pupil achievement A follow-up using the recorded information about achievement Feedback to the pupils and Feedback to the teacher (yourself) and possibly Entry on records of achievement Figure 5.1.2 Figure 5.1.3 .shows an activity consisting of three questions while Figure 5.1.4 shows a form of a teacher record or data sheet on how each of your pupils performed in each activity. 131 Grade: 5 Measurement: Area Name: …………….. Title: Understand and use the concept of area. Learning outcome: Calculate the areas of composite shapes from triangles, squares and rectangles. You must find the area of Shape 1, Shape 2 and Shape 3. Write your working out on the dotted lines Shape 1 Shape 2 12 cm 6× 6 = 36 10 × 5 = 50 6 cm 12× 6 = 72 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4 × 2½ = 10 6 cm - - - - - - - - - 14 cm - - - - - - - - - 6 cm 108 cm2 10 cm 60 cm2 6 cm 5 cm Shape 3 6 × 4 = 24 2 cm 6 cm 1× 4 = 4 4 cm 1× 4 = 4 32 cm2 2 cm For the teacher Shape Tick Reason for error 1 2 3 Feedback Record of Achievement Figure 5.1.3 132 Data Sheet Subject: Mathematics Level: Grade 5 Date: 14/9/06 Learning outcome: Calculate the areas of composite shapes from triangles, squares and rectangles ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 22/35 pupils had problems with Shape 3 16/35 pupils had problems with Shape 2 Only 3 pupils had problems with Shape 1 It seems that the triangle formula for area caused difficulty; many pupils applying base x height as the area. Revisit this next lesson Figure 5.1.4 The example work of Mary, Fatu and Tevita, shown in Figure 5.1.5 includes the notes made by the teacher for each pupil. The checklist shows with a or whether the work was correct, and the ‘Reason for error’ column describes a difficulty. The ‘Feedback’ box summarizes what needs to be revisited with the pupil. The ‘Record of Achievement’ box indicates whether the learning outcome can be ticked off or not on the Record of Achievement for that pupil. Discussion with Fatu showed that the error in calculation for Shape 3 was a slip-up, as Fatu recognized the source of error immediately. On the strength of this, the learning outcome was ticked off on the ‘Record of Achievement’. 133 134 5.2 Formal Classroom Activities As earlier indicated, activities are either formal or informal. While the demarcation between activities considered as “formal” from those considered as “informal” is not clear cut, the length of time that is required for pupils to complete the activity as. This is indicated by the clock face at the right-hand-side of the heading. The function of any activity, whether formal or informal, remains the same; that being to provide information that can gauge pupil learning, and for that information to be used to assist pupils with their learning. Typically formal activities will occupy the available lesson time, and therefore constitute the major portion of the lesson plan. Some of the activities considered as formal are extensions of activities that are classified as informal, with the extra time allowing for greater coverage. For example ‘Action Demonstration’ activities where pupils are required to give a demonstration could not accommodate many pupils ‘demonstrating’ simply because of time constraints. However its longer version called ‘Performance Activities’ will allow for a wider range of activities across several subjects. More time also means that additional activity styles can be used, thus including activities that can be clearly associated with practical and creative skills. Another feature of the ‘Formal Activities’ is that each activity would be developed in line with the ‘Pupil Activity Structure’ described in section 4.1. The timing of the Formal Activities is important. The activity should be used; - as a teaching tool for working towards a particular learning outcome or set of associated learning outcomes - as a checking tool that follows very closely after a particular set of learning outcomes are thought to have been achieved - as a source of information upon which feedback to pupils can be based These activities are not intended to be separated from the moment of learning by large stretches of time. To do so would mean that the activity was playing no part in learning, but was being used as an adjudication of performance for some other purpose. Some examples of formal activities are outlined. 135 5.2.1 Problem Solving One of the types of formal activities you may wish to adopt is that of problem solving. As a teacher you will have frequently asked pupils to solve problems of one kind or another. The problems may have had a mathematical basis, but there may have been others that presented pupils with a logistical challenge. For example pupils may have been asked to ‘find something out’, and this may have required them to answer the question ‘How do I find this something out?’ As teachers we frequently pay little attention to ‘how the pupil found something out’ providing that ‘they did find that particular something out’. In other words we were less interested in ‘how a problem is solved’, than in the fact that ‘the problem has been solved’. It may be worthwhile occasionally encouraging pupils to think about ways to solve a particular problem, and for that to be the real focus, rather than the solution that happens to emerge at the end. By doing this you will be encouraging the development of a skill that is useful throughout life, and which is not peculiar to a particular course or subject. E A good starting point is to present a problem that you know your pupils can solve. For example you may know that they can add 2-digit whole numbers of any value. Presenting them with the addition sum: 57 + 74 will yield a ‘classful’ of 131s. They may even set the working of the problem out as: 5 7 171 4 --------- 1 3 1 --------- It is likely that they are so familiar with this particular problem that they can almost solve it subconsciously or by rote. But if you ask them to write down and explain what they were doing, and why, it will encourage thought about the actual process that goes on when a problem is being solved. 136 A pupil’s response might go like this: I looked at the unit’s column and saw a seven and a four. I know that these add up to eleven, which means I will have a whole ten to carry to the tens column, leaving a one in the units. So I wrote the 1 in the units, and I reminded myself of the ten by putting a little one next to the seven. Then I said to myself seven and one is eight and I have to add five to that eight. I knew that five and eight is thirteen, but the one here stands for one hundred, so I wrote the answer one hundred and thirty one. Figure 5.2.1 Try getting pupils to write down, or to describe orally, exactly how they go about solving a problem. Each step needs to be clear. The important thing is that you know that they are capable of solving the problem without too much difficulty. It does not have to be a mathematics-based problem. E For example the problem could be: - A door is locked. You have a bunch of 15 keys, but you do not know which key opens the door. What is the best way to find the key that opens the door? - You are reading a very interesting book. By accident the book closes and you lose the page that you were reading. What is the best way to find the same page again? - You have an atlas and you want to find where Taiwan is. How do you do this? - You know that today is Tuesday, 24th January. How can you find out what day February 17th is? Encouraging pupils to ask questions of them is the key to problem solving. If they become familiar with, and develop the technique, it will be an extra tool that helps them to reach a whole range of learning outcomes that require understanding, and application. Here is a problem that the class can first think about, and then actually E try to see what happens. Before starting, every pupil must be holding a pen. 1. Every pupil in the class picks a card from a pile just as you would select a card from a pack of playing cards. All the cards are blank, except for one card that has an ‘X’ written on the back. 2. Every pupil must be secret about whether their card is blank or has an ‘X’. 3. -The class then walks around, and at a signal, each pupil shakes hands with another pupil. The pair of hand shakers look at their cards. If one of the hand shakers has a card with an ‘X’, then the other pupil must secretly write an ‘X’ on their own card, but every one pretends to write an X to protect the identity of the real writer. 4. At a signal the pair splits up and pupils again walk around, and at a second signal stop and shake hands, but it must be with someone new. Again everyone looks at their cards, and if one of the hand shakers has an ‘X’ the partner pupil must secretly write an ‘X’ on their card, while everyone pretends to write an X. 137 5. This process continues, under two conditions: • No-one is allowed to shake hands with the same person twice • If the pair of hand shakers finds that they both have an ‘X’ they must both drop out of the game. Before playing the game, pupils can think about what might happen. For example; - how many rounds will the game go on for? - will there be a ‘winner’ left at the end? - what would be the effect of not dropping out if both halves of the pair already have an ‘X’ when they meet? The next couple of examples present the pupils with information that they need to organize so that they are able to reach a required answer. In the two examples, tables have been prepared as a method of organizing the information. Three fruits; tomatoes, bananas and apples, are sold at different places, E the shop, the market and the farm. The price of the fruit is 20 c, 10 c, and 15 c. The problem is we do not know which fruit costs how much, and we do not know where to go to buy the fruit. But we do know three things. 1. Four apples cost the same as three tomatoes. 2. The farm sells the most expensive fruit. 3. The shop never sells bananas. Can you find out where to go to buy each fruit, and how much each fruit costs? 10 15 20 Market Shop Farm Banana Apple Tomato Market Shop Farm Figure 5.2.2 138 5.2.2 Graphing – Pie and Bar Charts Making sense of information that is presented graphically is a cross- curricular skill. Pupils will come across graphs or charts presented as pie charts and as bar charts through advertising and newspapers. Graphing may not be specifically mentioned as a learning outcome, but it may be an assumed skill in a number of courses. A general objective may refer to “pupils organizing and interpreting data”. This objective can yield the learning outcomes that; “pupils can effectively present data in graphical form” “pupils can interpret data that is presented in graphical form” The answer to a number of questions will provide indication as to whether or not pupils have met these learning outcomes. - Are pupils familiar with the terms ‘pie chart and ‘bar chart’? - Can pupils recognize a pie chart and a bar chart? - Can pupils interpret the information in a pie chart or a bar chart? - Can pupils construct a pie chart or a bar chart? - Can pupils decide on the most appropriate chart form for a given set of data? - Do pupils correctly show all the necessary features in their chart? - Do pupils recognize that pie charts are suited to data where a ‘whole’ is being divided up? - Do pupils recognize that bar charts are suited to data that reflects frequency of either connected or unconnected items? Examples of data suited to pie chart are; - a family budget - world population divided by continent Examples of data suited to bar chart representation are; - a family budget (items connected) - number of leaves on different plants (items unconnected) 139 E Pie chart: Monthly family income budget Cleaning Transport 10% 10% Savings 10% Clothes 10% Fuel 15% Food Entertainment 40% 5% Figure 5.2.5. E Bar chart: Number of leaves on different plants Bar Chart 8 7 6 5 a v e s 4 3 o . of Le N 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 plant Figure 5.2.6 The c a h rts shown in Figure 5.2.5.and Figure 5.2.6 can be used by pupils to demonstrate their meeting of the learning outcomes. Questions based on the data they contain will enable the pupils to gauge whether or not they feel confident with these representations E Get the pupils to individually construct two questions about the data in each chart. Ask them to answer their own questions. Mala did this and recorded his work on a sheet as shown in Figure 5.2.7. 140 Pie and Bar Charts Name ………Mala…………Class…6M………Date…August 2007…… Pie Chart My Question My Answer What does the family spend the Entertainment least amount of money on? If the monthly income is $4,000, $400 how much do they manage to save? Bar Chart My Question My Answer How many plants have more than Three plants 3 leaves? What is the total number of leaves 10 leaves on plant 1 and plant 2 Figure 5.2.7 Pie and Bar Charts Name ………Talei…………Class…6M………Date…August 2007…… Pie Chart My Question My Answer How much money did the family $1,600 spend on food? What were the fuels they used? Kerosene, and wood Bar Chart My Question My Answer Which was the biggest plant? Plant 2 Which plants were the same? Plant 1 and plant 4 Figure 5.2.8 On the basis of this activity, Mala has shown good understanding, but Talei has not interpreted the data correctly. The questions that Talei has produced cannot be answered from the data, and therefore the answers cannot be confirmed by the data. Mala has reached the learning outcome that “pupils can interpret data that is presented in graphical form”, but Talei has not. There may be other pupils like Talei who need further help. By talking through the pie and bar charts in Figure 5.2.5 and Figure 5.2.6i, their understanding might be improved. Using Mala and others who have been successful to explain to their friends will also be helpful. If Mala can explain to Talei why his questions were not appropriate, it will demonstrate a more complete understanding on Mala’s part, and at the same time help Talei. 141 E Get the class to think of data sources that might be suited to pie charts and bar charts. Collect these ideas on the blackboard. When a few ideas for a pie chart and a few ideas for a bar chart have been collected, get pupils to independently ‘invent’ about six pieces of data, and then build a pie chart and build a bar chart from those pieces of data. Provide pupils with the blanks, such as shown in Figure 5.2.9 Pie Chart Bar Chart Figure 5.2.9. A checklist is a convenient way for pupils to make sure all the necessary features have been included in their pie or bar chart. Figure 5.2.10 shows a suitable list for this purpose. Pupils should be encouraged to refer to the checklist both during construction of the chart, and as a self-check after construction is complete. Pie Chart Feature Present or A title that summarises the purpose of the chart Distinct sectors Sectors labeled with datum name Sector size compatible with datum size Data is suited to pie charting Bar Chart Feature Present or A title that summarizes the purpose of the chart Both Axes clearly labeled y-axis clearly graduated x-axis clearly graduated or labeled Bar column heights compatible with data Data is suited to bar charting Figure 5.2.10 142 Provide the pupils with either a pie chart or a bar chart, and get them to transform, one into the other. Make sure that the data is ‘transformable’. E For example the data in Figure 5.2.11, can be used to construct either a pie chart or a bar chart, and is therefore transformable from one to the other. Number of pupils over 130 cm in height Class Number of pupils 1 4 2 2 3 7 4 9 5 12 6 16 Figure 5.2.11 Figure 5.2.12 shows a possible response No. of pupils over 130 cm in height Class 1 (4) Class 2 (2) Class 6 (16) Class 3 (7) Class 4 (9) Class 5 (12) Figure 5.2.12 143 5.2.3 Calculations A range of learning outcomes involves some form of calculation. These outcomes may be related to a mathematics course, but other subjects also have outcomes that may require pupils to calculate some value. Calculations vary in the demands they place on pupils, and quite often the differences are to be found in the way the calculation is presented. In general, calculations fall into one of four categories, or into a mixture taken from the four categories. In the examples that follow ere th are four categories, and in each category there are three examples. The data used in the three examples shown in the first category is e r peated in each of the next thr e e categories. Category Examples of 1 2 3 calculation First Second Third Increasing cognitive demand Fourth Figure 5.2.13 E The first category is pure procedure. The calculation comprises numbers and symbols, but few words. For example: “pupils can add 2-digit numbers” • 26 + 12 “pupils can divide any number by ten” • $220 ÷ 10 “pupils can solve simple equations” • y = 2x + 3 (where x = 1) Figure 5.2.14 144 E The second category, buries the calculation inside a setting. For example: “pupils can add 2-digit numbers when presented in a practical e s tting” • There are twenty six pupils in class 4G and only twelve pupils in class 4H. How many pupils altogether in classes 4G and 4H? “pupils can divide by ten when presented in a practical setting” • The $220 that the 10 girls were given was shared equally amongst them. How much did each girl get? “pupils can solve simple equations presented as data in a practical setting” • I’ve got two trouser pockets and I have a pen in each pocket. I also have a shirt with three pens in the pocket. How many pens have I got? Figure 5.2.15 E The third category, requires pupils to find the data required for the calculation. For example: “pupils can extract data required for addition” • In a room there are forty six men and twenty four women. Twenty of the men are less than thirty years old, and twelve of the women are less than thirty years old. How many people in the room are over twenty nine years old? “pupils can extract data required for division” • I paid for a two thousand eight hundred Vatu air fare with a five thousand Vatu note. I asked my father if I could use all the change to buy ten bars of chocolate for my friends. How much did each bar of chocolate cost? “pupils can extract data forming the basis for a simple equation” • Yona is four years old and has an older sister Vira. Three years ago, Vera was twice as old as Yona. How old is Vera now? Figure 5.2.16 145 5.2.4 Comprehension Passage Activities based on passages of text may be used in a range of subjects. The objective of the activity will be based upon comprehension of the writing. Since the comprehension passage could be on any topic, you or your pupils will choose a passage that links with specific learning outcomes. The language level of the passage should match the general language development of the class it is intended to be used with. There are a number of decisions that you will make about the handling of the lesson. 1. How will the passage be introduced? 2. Will the passage be read out aloud. 3. Will you read the passage or will a pupil. 4. Will the reading be shared between pupils. 5. Will the passage be read silently by all pupils. 6. After the passage has been read what then? 7. Will there be discussion of the content? 8. Will pupils ask each other questions? 9. Will you ask questions of the class? 10. Will pupils be writing answers to questions? Some of these questions will be answered when the learning outcome is identified. As an example take these two learning outcomes. E “pupils can read and describe the writer’s point of view or bias” “pupils can read and differentiate between fact and opinion” You will first need to ensure that pupils understand what is meant by ‘fact’, what is meant by ‘opinion’ and what is meant by ‘bias’. To check this, ask for examples from pupils. If this is a problem, offer examples of your own first, checking that pupils understand why the examples contain fact, opinion or bias. “I think it will rain tomorrow” is an example of an opinion “It is raining today” is an example of fact “I hope it will be dry next week” is an example showing bias Follow this up with pupils offering their own examples. When you are happy that the concepts of fact, opinion and bias are understood, your pupils will be ready to move on to the comprehension passage. A passage has been picked by a couple of pupils. They have taken it from the local newspaper. 146 E An example of a selected passage is shown in Figure 5.2.17. A possible approach involves first looking at the title of the passage. Discussing what information is given away by the title. Do pupils understand the title? Dose it give a clue to what the passage is about? Does it suggest where the passage came from, and who wrote it? Does it suggest a reason why the passage has been written? Pupils can be encouraged to talk about these questions. This can be followed by reading the passage. Perhaps it has been decided that pupils will read the passage themselves, making notes on anything they do not understand. They can also making note of any word, phrase or sentence that is evidence of fact, opinion or bias. Students get the sack over alcohol abuse By Elenor Waiwo November 16 2005 Over 10 senior students from Pasifika College had to leave the college a week earlier before break-up after being found drinking on campus. The students could have held on to complete the year, given the important week of their final examinations. "They must be regretting their actions thinking if only we had not done such silly thing," a senior teacher said. The students were caught on the spot as they gathered to drink homebrew in the dormitory. A group of five students were said to have been spotted by the college driver. The case was placed under the responsibility of the college's deputy principal. The senior staff believes only one student knew how to produce alcohol through fermentation process, but a former student has revealed to Daily Post it was not the first time students have produced alcohol. Parents have been warned to take precautionary measures to help their children. Teaching staff who are former students have been requested in the past to help stamp out such practices without success, Daily Post understands. My advice is students, parents and teachers must work harder to put in place stronger measurers to stop such behaviour," the former student said. Many also believe the school needs to be properly fenced. Figure 5.2.17 Having read the passage, a class discussion can get pupils to throw out ideas, by giving their selections of words, or phrases that reveal the three features of the learning outcomes, fact, opinion and bias. If you believe that your pupils have grasped the concepts of fact, opinion and bias, the passage can be presented in a way that will provide you with information about individual pupil grasp. 147 E Figure 5.2.18, splits the passage into sentences, and sometimes into clauses. The letters F, O and B are used in the right hand column. The pupil enters the letter to indicate whether they believe the sentence shows fact, opinion, bias, or a combination of two. Comprehension “pupils can read and describe the writer’s point of view or bias” “pupils can read and differentiate between fact and opinion” Name ……Kalo……….. Class 6N….. Date …June 2006……… 1. Students get the sack over alcohol abuse F B 2. Over 10 senior students from Pasifika College had to leave the college F a week earlier before break-up after being found drinking on campus. 3. The students could have held on to complete the year, O 4. given the important week of their final examinations. B 5. "They must be regretting their actions thinking if only we had not O B done such silly thing," a senior teacher said. 6. The students were caught on the spot as they gathered to drink F homebrew in the dormitory. 7. A group of five students were said to have been spotted by the college F? driver. 8. The case was placed under the responsibility of the college's deputy F principal. 9. The senior staff believes only one student knew how to produce O alcohol through fermentation process, 10. but a former student has revealed to Daily Post it was not the first F time students have produced alcohol. 11. Parents have been warned to take precautionary measures to help F their children. 12. Teaching staff who are former students have been requested in the F? B past to help stamp out such practices without success, Daily Post understands. 13. My advice is students, parents and teachers must work harder to O B put in place stronger measurers to stop such behaviour," the former student said. 14. Many also believe the school needs to be properly fenced. O B Figure 5.2.18 By coding the sentences or phrases with a number, the pupil responses can be extended to include a justification of their F, O, B choices. Figure 5.2.19 contains a justification that the teacher helped Kalo to produce. Kalo says “ I think the title is both fact and bias. I think this because ‘Students get the sack over alcohol abuse’ says the students have been drinking which is a fact, but using strong words like ‘the sack’ and ‘abuse’ tells us that the writer thinks that what they were doing is wrong, and that is bias. If the title had said ‘Poor students will miss their exams because they made the mistake of drinking’, then the writer would have felt sorry for the students, but that would still have been bias.” A title that said “Students found drinking asked to leave school,” would have been fact with no bias. Figure 5.2.19 148 Kalo has a good idea of the difference between fact and bias. The same passage could be used to meet different learning outcomes such as; “pupils can read a passage of text with understanding” “pupils can summarize a passage of text” A set of questions based on a passage can be used to check whether pupils understand various aspects of the passage. This can be done at different levels of difficulty. For example Figure 5.2.20 is set at a lower level than Figure 5.2.21, and Figure 5.2.21 at a lower level than Figure 5.2.22, yet all sets of questions are based on the passage shown in Figure 5.2.17. All pupils can start the comprehension at Level 1, and move to Level 2 and Level 3, as each is completed. This whole activity is intended to aid pupils in comprehension, Access to dictionaries, receiving words of guidance from you, and discussion with their friends can all play a part in improving comprehension. E Comprehension Questions Level 1 Use information from the passage of writing entitled ‘Students get the sack over alcohol abuse’ to answer the following questions. 1. Who wrote this passage? 2. Describe, in one sentence, what the passage is about. 3. What do the following words mean? senior warned deputy 4. What do the following phrases mean? ‘they gathered’ ‘without success’ ‘how to produce’ Figure 5.2.20 149 E Comprehension Questions Level 2 Use information from the passage of writing entitled ‘Students get the sack over alcohol abuse’ to answer the following questions. 1. Where did this passage of writing come from? 2. Describe, in one sentence, what the passage is about. 3. What do the following words mean? final spotted fenced 4. What do the following phrases mean? ‘before break-up’ ‘have held on’ ‘former students’ Figure 5.2.21 E Comprehension Questions Level 3 Use information from the passage of writing entitled ‘Students get the sack over alcohol abuse’ to answer the following questions. 1. What type of writing is the passage? 2. Describe, in one sentence, what the passage is about. 3. What do the following words mean? campus homebrew precautionary 4. What do the following phrases mean? ‘regretting their actions’ ‘stamp out such practices’ ‘stronger measures’ Figure 5.2.22 There is never any upper limit to comprehension. We all meet passages of text that we find difficult to understand. You will therefore need to decide whether or not pupils comprehend at an acceptable level. This will relate to their age and to the guidance provided by the course document for the subject that is the basis of the comprehension. It is probable that there will be an element of judgement required on your part, when you are pitching your activities, and attempting to ascertain if pupils are progressing towards your interpretation of the learning outcomes. 150 5.2.5 Making Hypothesis When pupils say things like, “I wonder if ……..” or “I think that …..…”, there is often the seed of a hypothesis lurking there. For example: A mother says “Don’t put the washing on the line; it looks as though it is going to rain”. It is understood – but not spoken – that the clothes will not dry if it raining. Her daughter wonders, “will the clothes dry more quickly in the sun or in the wind?” This is the seed of a hypothesis. Her daughter’s thought can be slightly changed into “Clothes dry more quickly on windy days than on sunny days”. This is a statement. It may be true or it may be false. The statement can be a ‘hypothesis’ which means that an investigation can be designed to see if the statement (i.e. the hypothesis) is correct or incorrect. Learning outcomes that benefit from making a hypothesis are: “Pupils can analyze information” “Pupils can use an experimental approach to a problem” Getting your pupils to think of questions that puzzle them, or about which they are curious, is a way of forming hypotheses. The question is first changed into an assertion, and that assertion is then a hypothesis. Question: “Will the clothes dry more quickly in the sun or in the wind?” Assertion: “Clothes dry more quickly on windy days than on sunny days” HYPOTHESIS Figure 5.2.23 Getting pupils to create hypotheses is a useful step in problem solving. The hypothesis defines what it is that has to be solved. You may know whether their assertions are valid or invalid, but that does not matter. For the pupil, the assertion can be a hypothesis. 151 E Examples of pupil-created assertions are given in Figure 5.2.24. “The quickest way to school from the shop is along the beach not along the road” “Hibiscus flowers are more popular to wear in the hair than frangipani flowers” “Sound travels further at night than during the day” “Fresh hens eggs float in rain water” Figure 5.2.24 Get pupils to discuss these assertions. Get them to think how they can test each assertion. What conditions must be applied during the testing. For example with the first assertion in Figure 5.2.24; is the sand dry or wet? Are people going at the same speed along the road and along the beach? Are they allowed to run not walk?; Is it quicker because it is shorter or for some other reason?; how do you know it is quicker? As each point is raised get the class to think of a way to answer the point. After the pupils have had practice in addressing the control of conditions in the Figure 5.2.25 assertions, let the class try to devise a way of checking the assertion made in Figure 5.2.23 about the drying of clothes. See how many of the points shown in Figure 5.2.25 are included in their ideas. 1. Using two identical pieces of cloth 2. Selecting a sunny and windy day for testing. 3. Placing cloths in different positions 4. One cloth in sunny place with no wind. 5. One cloth in windy place with no sun. 6. Both hanging open not crumpled up. 7. Both hanging for same length of time. Figure 5.2.25 152 5.2.6 Investigation Report Pupils are encouraged to develop enquiring minds. Asking questions is one way that they satisfy their curiosity. There are occasions when the questions being asked are an appropriate basis for investigation. This is how science has developed over the centuries. The learning outcome that “pupils can carry out an investigation involving several stages”, reflects the approach that science encourages. In section 5.2.5, the concept of a hypothesis was described as a question that has been converted into an assertion. Questioning the validity of that assertion forms the basis of a specific scientific investigation. In section 5.2.5 pupils were asked to think how they would investigate the hypothesis; “Clothes dry more quickly on windy days than on sunny days” Investigations are not confined to the subject we know as science. They are frequently met in mathematics and in the social sciences. In science, investigations are usually called experiments, and involve a practical aspect. There are certain steps which are common to all investigations; - a statement saying what is to be investigated (often as a hypothesis) - a description of how the investigation is to proceed - a list of requirements for the investigation - a statement of what is to be observed and recorded - a statement of what can be deduced from the recorded observations - and finally, a statement about how the deductions relate back to the purpose of the investigation 153 These steps are shown in Figure 5.2.26, where a pupil has said what she E will do to check the hypothesis about drying cloth in the sun and in the wind. Hypothesis: Clothes dry faster in the wind than in the sun How I will do my investigation: I will use two tea towels that are exactly the same. I wait for a day that is sunny and windy. Then I will cover the tea towels with water in a bucket and leave them for 5 minutes. Then I will hang one towel on a washing line in the sun but where there is no wind. I will hang the other one on a washing line in the wind but where there is no sun. I have to do this to know what the difference is. I will check them every half hour to see how well they are drying. What I need: I need two tea towels exactly the same. I need a bucket with water. I need washing lines, one in the sun but no wind, and one in the wind but no sun. I need a clock or watch so that I can know when I must check the towels. What I will look for: Every half hour I will look at the towels. I will decide which of the towels is drier. I will write down the time and what the towels are like for dryness. I have made a scale to test the dryness. My scale is: 1 Very wet, water is dripping to the floor 2 Wet, I can squeeze water out of the towel 3 Very damp, it feels wet on my face 4 Damp, it feels cool on my face 5 Dry What my results tell me: I will see which towel reaches number 5 first, and that will help me to answer my hypothesis. My conclusion: I will say whether my hypothesis is correct or not Figure 5.2.26 154 A few ideas for small investigations: 1. Do seeds need water to germinate? 2. Will seeds germinate in a refrigerator? 3. Do seeds need soil to germinate? 4. Do iron nails rust quicker than galvanized nails? 5. How many times in a minute do we breathe when we are sitting? 6. Does our breathing rate change when we are exercising? 7. What is the most common letter used in English? 8. What is the most common letter used in Bislama? 9. Can right-handed people use a scissors accurately with their left hand? 10. What percentage of people in my school (or class) has earlobes attached? 11. What percentage of pupils in my school (or class) can roll their tongues? 12. What percentage of pupils in my school (or class) live more than 2km from school? 13. How many grains in 1kg of rice? 14. How full of sand does an empty ‘soft drink can’ have to be before it will sink in sea water? 15. How far can a plastic washing-up bottle squirt water? 16. If two friends each toss a 20Vt coin at the same time, how often will both coins land with the 20Vt face showing? 17. How far do the pedals of a bicycle move compared to the distance the bicycle moves? 18. Which is the weakest part of a plastic shopping bag, the handles or the bottom? 19. Can two identical rubber bands carry more weight than one on its own? 20. Do the tallest people have the biggest feet? Figure 5.2.27 155 5.2.7 Performances The idea of ‘practice’ in order to build competence is well understood in activities that involve performance. A combination of self appraisal and guidance from an observer is also a common feature of improving performance. The pupil who is long jumping will be keen to know how long the jump is, but may also make comments such as; - “I wasn’t really running fast before the jump” - “I was a long way from the take-off board” These are self appraisals and indicate the pupil is aware of the nature of faults in the performance. Knowing what the weaknesses are is a necessary step before improvement. Other pupils can also play a part in identifying weaknesses. Seeing weaknesses, and strengths, in others is a form of exemplification. Discussion that goes on during and immediately after a performance provides feedback at a moment when it can have the greatest impact. Encouraging other pupils to observe and comment on performance, strengthens recognition of the most accomplished technique. For any particular performance activity a checklist can be prepared that highlights the important aspects of the performance. E Taking the example of the long jump: Checklist – Long Jump 1. Is the run-up of the correct length? 2. Do I arrive at the take-off board with my correct foot? 3. Am I arriving as close as possible to the take-off board? 4. Am I traveling at my top speed when I arrive at the take-off board? 5. Is my path through the air high enough? 6. Are my legs in the correct position for landing? Figure 5.2.28 If all pupils are in possession of the long jump checklist, then everyone knows what the important aspects of the performance are. This principle applies to any activity built upon learning outcomes. “pupils recognize the various elements that lead towards an efficient long jump” “pupils endeavour to incorporate good technique into their long jumping efforts” 156 Kalip is the long jumper. Bue and Lam are watching. Kalip goes through the whole process from lead-up to jump. Bue thinks that Kalip is going fastest at a point halfway through the run-up and suggests shortening the run. Lam agrees, and also notices that Kalip starts the jump when still a long way from the take-off board. They all decide that it would be best to shorten the run-up and see if the take-off speed is improved. If it is then the exact start of the run-up can be adjusted a little to correct the take-off point. Kalip tries the change, and there is an improvement in the jump. Figure 5.2.29 The example given in Figure 5.2.29 describes three pupil friends who are; - in possession of the learning outcomes regarding the activity - in possession of a checklist that specifies points of good technique - helping each other to achieve the learning outcomes By making certain that the pupils are in possession of the learning outcomes, and in possession of a checklist for those outcomes, the pupils stand a chance of focusing their own learning. By encouraging pupils to help each other in their learning endeavours, focus develops for both the helper and the helped. The checklist that you give to pupils can be translated into simpler language if this is thought to be necessary. For example Figure 5.2.30 and Figure 5.2.31 are checklists for an activity in drama, one is in ‘teacher’ language, the other is in ‘pupil’ language. Subjects that frequently have physical performance activities include, physical education, games, drama, dance and music. Practice or rehearsal is a common feature in all of these. Building check lists for the various performance activities will help pupils to focus on the various components that lead to competent performance. 157 A checklist developed for drama might be based on the following example. E Check List – Drama (Teacher language) Participation 1. Has developed confidence to take on a character Expression 1. Speech is clear with good intonation and expression 2. Facial expressions complement the spoken context 3. Body actions are in keeping with the context 4. Body reactions are appropriate to the context Stagecraft 1. Stage movement is appropriate and considerate of other players 2. Timing as initiator or responder shows good judgment Figure 5.2.30 Check List – Drama (Pupil language) Participation 1. I am confident in pretending to be a character Expression 1. My speech is clear with good intonation and expression 2. My face expresses what is happening or what I am saying. 3. My movements support what is happening or what I am saying 4. My body reacts properly to what is happening Stagecraft 1. My movement on the stage is what the character should do, and does not spoil the other actors 2. My timing when I say something or answer someone is good Figure 5.2.31 158 5.3 Informal Activities As earlier indicated, activities prepared by the teacher can be characterized as either formal or informal, both of which play a crucial role in the teaching and learning. While most teachers are familiar with the formal activities, organized and prepared and included as part of the lesson plan, informal activities are often spontaneous and may be inside or outside a lesson. Informal activities may also include those which are prepared but are of short duration, typically five to ten minutes. Irrespective of whether they are formal or informal all activities focus on the same issue that of collecting evidence regarding the achievement of pupils. One advantage of informal activities is availability of evidence to provide immediate feedback to pupils or use feedback immediately or at least as soon as possible after the learning opportunity. Allowing pupils to remain anonymous is encouraged where you are more interested in judging the overall achievement of the whole class rather than the individual pupil, or where you are more interested in determining whether your lesson has been successful or not. For some activities pupils are going to be more willing to participate freely if they know that their contribution will remain anonymous. As the teacher you will have a great deal of interaction with your pupils especially inside the classroom as part of a lesson. These interactions often tend to be informal and spontaneous yet they can provide you with information about your pupils that relates to the learning outcomes of the courses that you teach. Something that the pupil says or does that allows you to infer something about the command they have on the course objectives and where they stand in relation to the learning outcomes. These will usually fall into one of two situations; - indication that the pupil has achieved the learning outcome. - indication that the pupil has yet to achieve the learning outcome. There is no reason why information that reaches you in an informal setting about the pupil cannot be used to benefit the pupil in the recording of their achievements. Here are some examples; E Example 1 Tevita is on his way to school and meets you, saying, “there was something wrong with question three in the homework last night because a table which is 2 metres long can’t have an area of 0.1 square metres, it would be too narrow!!!” This would indicate that Tevita had worked out that the table would only be 5 centimetres wide, which is obviously ridiculous for a table. So Tevita is not only ”able to find the area of a rectangle”, but also “able to apply the idea of area to everyday circumstances”. 159 Locating the learning outcomes on Tevita’s record of achievement and ticking them off would be justified. (I suppose you would need to be sure that Tevita’s dad or elder brother is not the one who made the discovery; but you could soon find that out with a couple of searching questions about the table.) E Example 2 You ask Fatu to go and buy some coconut string to act as a line to hang some pictures. She says “Well I will need to get – (counts big steps) – that’s nine steps, I suppose about eight metres.” Fatu has shown that she can estimate short distances well, and has satisfied a learning outcome that requires a pupil to “make reasonable estimates of the size of a visible distance”, and also “apply the correct units to distance” Again, Fatu deserves to have those learning outcomes placed on her record. Of course the reverse is also true. The pupil may say or do something that tells you that they are not yet ready to have a learning outcome placed on their record. E Example 3 Obed is playing with a piece of polystyrene, when he says “I don’t know how this stuff is supposed to keep things cold. Have you felt it? It’s warm!! You overhear Obed saying this and it tells you that Obed does not understand that the polystyrene is a poor conductor and feels warm because it is not removing heat from his hand. It also means that he doesn’t realize that poor conductors are good insulators. If Obed is not teasing you, it is safe to bet that he still needs greater understanding of conductors and insulators before you can tick off the learning outcome, “use appropriately the terms conduction and insulation”. While in the classroom you may be bombarded with information about your pupils. Dealing with such information becomes second nature, so much so that you may not even realize that you are acting upon it. One important source of such information is teacher observation. This does not mean that the teacher is required to sit back and watch the pupils, although there may be times when that is what you do. Observing your pupils is a dynamic process, with your observation causing an immediate adjustment to your teaching. Since this is a two way process, your pupils also make adjustments based on what they observe in you. 160 5.3.1 Observing your pupils As indicated in the previous section an important method of obtaining evidence about pupils’ achievement is through teacher observation. Teachers can observe their pupils in a number of ways; observing body language of pupils, observing pupil independently while they are doing the activity or observing pupil interaction with each other. Body Language The body language of pupils is always there in front of you. It is a rich source of information about pupil interest, participation and can alert you to moments when they are having difficulty. Pupils are not alone in exhibiting body language. You will also be giving out signals while you are teaching. The various signals made through body language cause shifts in behaviour on the part of the pupils and yourself. Since it is likely that you have numerous pupils in the classroom at any one time, it is unlikely that all the body signals coincide. Some pupils may be signaling “confusion”, while others may be signaling “understanding”. A good teacher will notice this conflict, and rather than move on with the lesson, will pause, and seek to clarify the immediate lesson points in order to help those signaling confusion. If signals of confusion remain, you may need to speak privately to such pupils later, or, you may be able to give a private assignment to those pupils who have grasped the ideas so far, while you gather together those for whom further discussion is needed. Firstly, let’s look at your body language when you are in front of a class. Any signals that inspire confidence in your leadership, in your subject competence, in your interest in all pupils, in your organization – these will all be picked up by your pupils. And of course, if any one of these is not reassuring, it too will be noticed by the pupils. Having a clear plan for the lesson will prevent body language that signals disorganization. If you are fumbling through papers, through drawers, or asking pupils to remind you of what you were supposed to be doing this lesson; these are all signals of disorganization. Thorough preparation of the course material; its objectives for the lesson; the concepts to be covered; these all need to be at your fingertips. If they are not, you are in danger of being embarrassed and signaling incompetence. Hesitancy, stuttering, avoiding questions, bluffing, will all be signals of incompetence. When you are the focus of pupil attention, it is important that you share your attention amongst all the class members. If your eye contact is restricted to just a few pupils it will send out a message that other pupils 161 are excluded from your interest. This is not the best way to engage pupils fully into a lesson, and engagement is a necessary platform for learning. Secondly, what body languages are exhibited by pupils? Body language is not usually an intentional display, although of course it can be deliberately used for effect by feigning a signal. Perhaps in the classroom the most common body signals put out by pupils are those shown in Figure 5.3.1. good understanding - direct eye contact, relaxed face, occasional nodding, failure to understand - direct eye contact, frowning face, eyes screwed up confusion - heading shaking, frowning interest - direct eye contact, leaning forward boredom - poor eye contact, vacant staring, fidgeting, yawning engagement - eye contact, occasional smile, enjoyment - relaxed, keen to communicate, occasional smile, enthusiasm - keen to communicate, leaning forward tiredness - yawning, eyes closing, slumping reluctance - avoiding eye contact, head shaking, head turned away, g surprise - eye brows raising, mouth relaxing, disbelief - eyes widening, frowning, mouth relaxing Figure 5.3.1 Body language varies slightly from person to person, and so knowing the pupil places a context on the body language being displayed. There is also variation in body languages from one culture to another. However what is important is your capacity to recognize the signals, and more importantly to adjust your communication in a way that improves the learning platform. You are controlling the flow of a lesson, and your pupils are providing you with immediate feedback. It is spontaneous, it is non-verbal, but it is too valuable to ignore. If boredom is being signaled, you can be sure precious little learning is taking place. The body signals of boredom are advising you to change tack. Break the pattern of the boredom. If necessary desert your lesson plan. Boredom is often a result of the pupil not being sufficiently engaged. If confusion is being signaled, you can be sure that there is a need to slow down, and perhaps, repeat coverage from a new angle. Independent observation A second setting for observation exists when pupils are independently engaged in some activity. An activity may be relatively sedentary such as reading, or may be dynamic such as in a field trip, practical task, or a performance of some sort. The observations might be scheduled as part of the process of teaching, or may be unscheduled and spontaneous depending upon circumstances that arise in the classroom. The teacher’s observation can be organized and schedule as in a pupil exhibiting a performance. This might be very brief lasting only a few seconds, or, might be extended over several minutes. The pupil knows 162 that the observation is taking place, and that the quality of the performance is open to comment. A pupil practicing the long jump for example will expect to receive not only feedback on the length of the jump, but also on the strength and weakness of the technique. The length of the run up, the take-off point, the body position through the air. These will all be points that the teacher observes in order to be able to provide feedback. Without the aid of a recording device, the observation will be over within seconds, and the feedback will be immediate (although the feedback points might be written down). Performing a dance may take 2 or 3 minutes, and the teacher will again be basing feedback advice on observations. With longer activities such as dance, a checklist will help the teacher to focus observations on a range of dance features that learning outcomes require. In contrast to organized observations, teachers also carry out unorganized observations. Although you might be providing direction for the pupils in the activity, there will be long periods when pupils are organizing themselves. It is when the class is independently active, and you are freed up to be available to individuals, that observations at that time become important. Watching the pupils will reveal those who are having difficulty getting started, ignoring safety advice, are heading in the wrong direction, and, will also reveal those that are settling nicely to the task at hand. In this setting you will be constantly on the move, from one pupil to another, casually encouraging and complimenting, until you have a reason to approach a specific pupil, based on your observation that guidance is required. A teacher that “lets them get on with it” is passing up the opportunity to assist, when observation indicates that help would get a pupil back on track. When pupils are working on their own, your time is freed up to provide individual guidance. This should not be a time for teacher escape! Observing pupil interaction There will be times when you have pupils in small groups for various activities designed to meet particular learning outcomes. Activities of this type are ideal for encouraging qualities such as co-operation, support, leadership, organization and others. But one of the problems of group activities is that it may yield an end product with no clear indication of individual contributions of members of the group. Being conscious of this potential difficulty with group activity will at least prepare you for the need to use observation as one way to gauge individual pupil contribution within the group. These observations can then be supported by other ways of gathering information about the grasp of individual group members, such as, oral questioning and individual pupil reporting. 163 For certain types of group activity such as drama performance, the use of observation is explicit. Devising a Group Work Data Collection Sheet will allow you to document your observations as part of the overall record of the group work. This becomes more important if the group work extends over several lessons or over several days. An example of a Group Work Data Collection Sheet is shown in Figure 5.3.2 and Figure 5.3.3. Group Work Data Collection Sheet Class ………….. Date ………….. Activity ……………………………………………………………. Learning outcomes …….…………………………………………...... ……………………………………………………. ……………………………………………………. Group members …………………………………………………… Observations: Feedback: Figure 5.3.2 We have already acknowledged that pupils will not all progress at the same rate. Some will signal understanding sooner than others. Your observations, together with other information gathering techniques, will tell you who is currently grasping the work and who is not. A useful ploy is to pair pupils, one who understands with one who is having difficulty. The one who understands is encouraged to help the other. This will consolidate understanding for the helper, and will provide individual attention for the one in need of help. This device also involves the pupils striving to achieve the outcome without your involvement as the teacher. 164 Group Work Data Collection Sheet Class: …5B……….. Date …20 – 29 April……. Activity: To map the distribution of pupil homes, and then record travel distances from home to school………………………………. Learning outcomes: 1. “Pupils able to map information relating to the geography of their town”. 2.“Pupils able to record data and make statements showing interpretation of the data” Group members: Willie Mike Paul John… Observations: Willie appeared to be making most of the decisions on how to go about the work. He has collected a lot of data but it is not well organized. His mapping of the location of pupil homes is not very neat but it is all there. Interpretation comments are sensible. Mike contributed well to the planning, and it is his suggestions that Willie pushed. Mike designed the way to collect the data, and the others used this. Not a lot of data collected, but it was pooled with the others. Very nice mapping. The interpretation was a bit weak, which was surprising as he used the idea of grouping data. Paul has been very quiet throughout, and had trouble collecting data because of shyness. He has tended to copy what the others have done. Since the interpretation of data was done individually Paul seemed lost and only repeated the data instead of interpreting it. John was really keen to start with, but became a bit quiet when Willie started to make decisions. He presented his data very well, both by map and by table. His oral presentation of his interpretation was good, and he even mentioned a way that the data collection could be improved. Feedback Have already gone over the good points with each pupil. Willie and John have reached both learning outcomes Mael has reached the mapping outcome but not completed the interpretation part of the second outcome. Bule needs more encouragement if he is to reach these outcomes. Figure 5.3.3. 165 5.3.2 Questioning Posing questions is an integral part of teaching as well as learning. It is a way of engaging pupils and teachers in conversation about topics pertinent to the course. And it is a skill that allows you to gauge the level of learning. You may decide to open your lesson with a “give away” question. A question that you are pretty sure all pupils will be able to answer. By doing this you will relax pupils who would otherwise worry about the answer they give. So for example if you are teaching a topic on “classification”; E You might hold up a plant and ask, “Is this an animal?” Almost certainly the class will respond in unison, “No!”, or perhaps “Don’t be silly!” You might follow this up with “Is it alive?” This time you may get fewer replies. “So why do you say it is not an animal?” and “What makes you think it is alive?” By this stage pupils may be talking to each other, and you can channel their thoughts into making decisions based on reasons. This is soft questioning where answers are volunteered, and successive questions develop in response to these answers. Alternatively you may pose a question that is more thought provoking, and requires time for pupils to plan their response. Asking for volunteer answers too early will mean that only the pupils arriving at an answer quickly will be heard. This has two drawbacks. Firstly, it will be the same few pupils who are answering the questions. Secondly, the other pupils who had been working towards an answer may actually stop thinking about the question, because the answer has already been given. If you are not aware of this, your classroom will divide into those pupils who answer and those who do not. The result will be that the quicker pupils profit from the questioning, while the slower pupils may actually suffer from the process. Often teacher’s questions are aimed at specific pupils. Whenever you do this you are putting the pupil “on the spot”. For this reason sensitivity needs to be used. Never ask a pupil a question that you know they cannot answer. There is nothing to be gained and there may be a lot to lose. Avoid embarrassing the pupil. This means that questions should be pitched so that they are within the grasp of the pupil. This does not mean that you know the pupil can answer the question, but rather that an attempt can be expected. Asking a further question or questions based on the pupil’s first response can 166 guide the pupil to a more complete answer. It is better that the pupil feels successful, than be left feeling defeated. In conjunction with the careful pitching of questions to pupils, it is wise to make sure that questioning is well distributed throughout the classroom. If pupils see that questioning is restricted to a particular area of seating, then shyer or less certain pupils will try to put themselves outside the target area. If you happen to hit the situation where a pupil simply cannot begin to answer the question, the situation can be defused by following up with a general enquiry such as; “How many of you are also uncertain about this question?” Questions should be clear and concise and avoid asking several questions as though it is a single question. Just as you will use questions as a way of getting pupils to think, and also to determine what they know and understand, so pupils will use questions to clarify points about which they are uncertain. There are several settings in which pupils can express their questions. Whether or not pupils are prepared to interrupt a lesson with a question, will depend upon the relationship which exists between you and the pupils, and what guidelines have been established for classroom behaviour. If you have indicated that you are happy to respond to questions indicated by a hand in the air, then pupils will become used to that. You may also interrupt yourself when the body language of one or more pupils indicates confusion or a problem in understanding. In this case the interruption is a response to the body language, and the interruption quickly translates into an invitation to the pupil to ask a question. For example; E You are having a lesson on gender and notice that Peta suddenly lifts her head with a frown on her face when you say; “A waitress is a woman, but we do not know if a doctor is a man or a woman” Noticing the frown on Peta’s face you say; “Peta, are you happy with that?” Peta responds with, “When you said doctor, I thought of a man” You respond with; Who else thought of a man when I said doctor?” A few pupils raise their hands. You then ask; “Do any of you know a doctor who is a woman?” David says; “My auntie is a doctor” And you say; “And what about auntie, does it have a gender?!” Figure 5.3.4 167 The learning outcome “that pupils recognize gender” is being worked towards by the question and answer process. Typically your lesson will be made up of many small sections that are linked or woven together. There will be natural breaks between these pieces that perhaps coincide with a change of concept. Before leaving the first concept you may wish to allow time for pupils to ask questions in order to clarify points. If you have a lesson with no breaks, then it becomes a boring lecture, not the best way to organize a lesson for school pupils. The more often you invite pupils to ask questions, or to make statements, the more likely they are to become involved in the lesson. One pupil question may lead to other questions from other pupils and then possibly on to pupil-led discussion. In such setting the pupil ‘becomes the teacher’. Such opportunity arises when pupils have been asked to become “experts” on some topic. Imagine giving pupils a week to find out what they can about a topic such as; growing a vegetable, maintaining a bicycle, where money comes from. As part of the follow up, the pupil is asked to give a short talk (2-3 minute) about the topic to the rest of the class. Certain class members (3 or 4) are asked to note down questions that they wish to ask the speaker at the end of the talk. Several lessons may be needed to allow all the pupils to give their talk. Hopefully both sides benefit. The speaker has; - become informed on a particular topic - gathered information from a variety of sources - communicated ideas to others - demonstrated that ideas can be clarified The pupils asking the questions have; - listened and acquired information - framed questions to find out more - communicated the question to someone else Since the whole of this process is pretty much under the pupils’ control, you are freed up to make observations about individuals that relate to a possible range of learning outcomes. Here we have an opportunity for you to gather data that relates to the state of learning exhibited by the pupils. A device for gathering this data could be a Data Collection Sheet that allows you to record your observations. A sample Data Collection Sheet is given in Figure 5.3.5. 168 E Data Collection Sheet for Topic Talk Class: …6P………….. Date: 13/07/06 Topic: Collecting Stamps Learning outcomes Pupils are able to gather information from new sources Pupils are able to communicate ideas and information to others Pupils are able to listen and respond to questions Pupils are able to frame and ask questions Speaker Sisi She had found a couple of books on stamp collecting from the library, and used information from them. She also found out that stamps in this country have lots of different values and designs. She went to the place that sells stamps and looked at stamps that had been used in previous years. Although she was nervous she managed to give lots of information and was interesting. She was asked three questions and was able to answer two. I liked the way she said what she needed to do to answer the third question. Questioners Shaun asked, “why people collect stamps?”. It was a good question because Sisi had not mentioned any reason; she had simply said that people do collect stamps. Lam asked,” what was the use of a $10 stamp when it only costs $2 to send a letter”. A good question because not it was not explained in the talk. Boe asked “Who makes the stamp?”. Sisi did not know but said she could find out. Feedback All of the pupils achieved the outcomes and were entered on their Records of Achievement Figure 5.3.5 When doing an activity Ask yourselves What am I aiming for in my answer? What do I think are the good parts to my answer? Which bits don’t look very good? What’s the best way to improve the weak bits? How do I know when my answer is good? Figure 5.3.6 169 Chapter Six 6.1 Monitoring achievements How often do your pupils ask you, “How am I doing?” Perhaps they do occasionally. How often do your pupils ask themselves, “How am I doing?” You may not know the answer to this. You may not know because you have not enquired of them. It may be a question that you have not expected them to ask of themselves. But it is a question that pupils will need to ask of themselves if they are to be ‘active learners’ as opposed to ‘passive learners’. This question, together with others has the potential for changing pupils from being individuals that are regularly fed, into individuals that can feed themselves. • What am I aiming for? • How am I doing? • What am I good at? • What do I need to improve? • How can I best get there? • How will I know when my work is good? Encouraging pupils to think about these questions on a regular basis is one way of engaging the pupils in changes that can have an influence on the rate of their progress. If pupils simply wait for adjudication at the end of the term or at the end of the year then the level of achievement will reflect the passive engagement of the previous months. If on the other hand pupils can be encouraged to think about their progress an active engagement can develop and this may be reflected in higher levels of achievement. So how can you foster a classroom environment in which pupils see themselves as active learners? One way is to devise activities that would allow both you and your pupils to monitor their progress. An example is given; E Pupils are asked to answer the main question “Why is the Marshall Islands described as ‘A Nation’?” This question comes up in a course that Peter is following, where the following learning outcomes are mentioned; “pupils understand the features that build a nation” “pupils understand and respect traditional custom” “pupils understand specific aspects of the geography of the country” 170 Pupils have to seek answers to the following check questions as they develop their answer to the main question. • What am I aiming for in my answer? • What do I think are the good parts to my answer? • Which bits don’t look very good? • What’s the best way to improve the weak bits? • How do I know when my answer is good? The activity starts off with a class discussion during which the pupils arrive at the ‘aspects’ that will be used to judge whether the answer is a good one or not. They decide that a good answer must have four main themes; geography, customs, language and other important shared things. The result of this discussion is that all pupils have an idea of “what I am aiming for in my answer” Peter then uses the guidance to the ‘aspects’ decide his answer to the main question. His answer is found in Figure 6.1.1. Peter’s first answer. Marshall Islands is made up of several islands. Some of the islands have big distances between them. The people who live on the islands look like each other. A person who lives in one island looks like a person from another island. You cannot tell which island they come from by looking at them. Another thing is the customs. Most of the customs are the same on all the islands. I have to say something about languages. The language on the islands is the same. So it doesn’t matter which island you are from because everyone speaks the same language. So that helps us be a nation. Another thing is we all eat the same sort of food that we grow on the island, and even the food that Marshall Islands imports. Another thing is we all use the same money, that is, the US dollar. Figure 6.1.1 Peter then had to decide “what do I think are the best bits to my answer”. Peter decided to show his answer to Mary. Mary thought that the ‘geography’ and the ‘language’ bits were the best. Peter thought the same. Then for “which bits don’t look very good” Mary said “you can say more about custom. You haven’t really given any example”, and “you have started two sentences off with the same words; it doesn’t sound good.” Peter then said “And for the other important things I can say “parliament” and the “church”, they’re not customs are they?” This will help with the question “what’s the best way to improve the weak bits?” 171 Peter’s second answer. Marshall Islands is made up of several islands. Some of the islands have big distances between them. The people who live on the islands look like each other. A person who lives in one island looks like a person from another island. You cannot tell which island they come from by looking at them. Another thing is the customs. Most of the customs are the same on all the islands. So that makes us be together like in the nation. I have to say something about language. The language on the islands is the same. So it doesn’t matter which island you are from because everyone speaks the same language. So that helps us be a nation. Another thing is we all eat the same sort of food that we grow on the island, and even the food that Marshall Islands imports. Another thing is that we all use the same money, that is, the US dollar. Every island has its own people in the parliament. This is the parliament of the Marshall Islands, and other countries don’t have people in our parliament. I’m not sure about the church but I think we have our own church, but we are Christians like lots of other places. Figure 6.1.2 Peter showed the second version of the answer to Mary. Mary thinks it is better now. “So is it good”, asks Peter? Mary is not sure. Peter is wondering “how do I know if my answer is good?” They both decide to ask the teacher for guidance. The teacher reads Peter’s work, and says; “Well done Peter, this is looking good. Did you ask yourself each of the 5 check questions?” Peter replies “Yes, but I am still not sure if my answer is good now.” The teacher responds with “You have some good points for each of the four aspects that we agreed on. So I think you have done well in the short time you had”. Peter says “I could have put more into it if I had more time because I could go to the library for some help”. The teacher says, “Look at this table. It is used to tell us if you have a good answer. The table says you must have two good points for each of the four aspects we agreed on”. Peter reads the table and sees he only has one point for geography and only has one point for language. “I need another point for geography and language! You should have let us have this at the beginning!!” The teacher says “Quite right. From now on I will make sure you do. In fact we can make the tables together before we start, just like we chose the ‘aspects’” 172 Aspect Achievement Level Geography: Level 2 2 valid points Selects and describes Level 1 1 valid point points that support the idea of a nation Level 0 0 valid point Customs: Level 2 2 valid points Level 1 1 valid point Selects and describes customs peculiar to the nation Level 0 0 valid point Language: Level 2 2 valid point Level 1 1 valid point Describes the support language gives to the idea of a nation Level 0 0 valid point Other important shared things: Level 2 2 valid points Describes other important shared Level 1 1 valid point things Level 0 0 valid points Figure 6.1.3 Peter went away and thought about another point for geography and for language. In order to consolidate the idea of ‘self-questioning’ by the pupils you could have a classroom poster that boldly presents the five questions mentioned earlier in this section. Are you learning? Ask yourselves What am I aiming for? How am I doing? What am I good at? What do I need to improve? How can I best get there? How will I know when my work is good? Figure 6.1.4 173 6.2 Linking Achievements to Learning Outcomes One of the key steps in trying to monitor pupil progress involves linking the achievement of pupils to the learning outcome. The figures shown in section 4.4 exemplify the linking up of pupil achievements to learning outcomes in two different ways. The first is where a question is structured so that the correct answer that a pupil produces demonstrates the full achievement of a specific learning outcome. The second is where an exemplar piece of pupil work demonstrates the expectation implied by a specific level of achievement of the learning outcome. If we are to be sure about the quality of our monitoring of pupil progress from one year to the next it is necessary to have clearly developed skill lines and skill ladders in the form of learning outcomes. Once these are in place it should be possible to see exactly where a pupil lies in terms of skill development. It is important that pupils can access the skill-lines and skill-ladders in the same way that it is important that pupils can access individual learning outcomes. They need to see where they have been, where they are now, and where they are going. Bear in mind that the skill-lines and skill-ladders are long term representations of skill development, as they represent curriculum expectations at successive years. The question then arises, how can pupil progress towards a single learning outcome be monitored? Learning Outcomes Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade Skill-line 1 2 3 4 5 6 Achievement Levels within L3 L3 L3 L3 the learning L2 L2 L2 L2 L2 L2 outcomes L1 L1 L1 L1 L1 L1 L0 L0 L0 L0 L0 L0 Figure 6.2.1 Figure 6.2.1 represents a skill-line made up of skill-related learning outcomes appearing in the curriculum covering Grade 1 to Grade 6. For 174 each learning outcome a set of achievement levels has been developed. For example the Grade 1 learning outcome has three levels shown as L0, L1 and L2, where L2 represents the highest achievement level, and therefore represents full achievement of that learning outcome. The number of achievement levels will depend on the number of differing achievement level statements sensible to construct. The number of achievement level statements on the other hand depends on how many factors within the learning outcome that you want to monitor. As an example take the learning outcome for punctuation as indicated by the Grade 1 curriculum. “Pupils use capital letters and full stops in short simple sentences”. Skill-line e L r a n n i g Outcomes Punctuation Grade 1 Achievement L2 Always uses capital letters and full stops correctly Levels within the in short simple sentences learning outcome L1 Uses capital letters and/or full stops correctly but occasionally makes errors L0 Is not yet using capital letters or full stops correctly Figure 6.2.2 In section 6.2 (achievement levels) the concept of building achievement levels was described. For a single learning outcome there may be up to four or five levels that can be identified as leading towards the overall achievement of that learning outcome. Short term monitoring of pupil progress, that goes hand-in-hand with the daily lessons, makes use of the description provided by each of these levels in order to decide precisely what aspect of the learning outcome a particular pupil needs to improve upon. Just as it is important for pupils to have an awareness of, and access to, skill-lines and skill-ladders, they also need to have access to the more immediate statements that describe the achievement levels within a single learning outcome. Figure 6.2.3 is the same as Figure 6.2.2, but the language used to describe the achievement levels is more appropriate for your pupils to understand. Involving the pupils in constructing achievement level statements in their own words is one way of consolidating the idea of “What I need to do” to improve. 175 Skill-line e L a n r i g n Outcomes Punctuation Grade 1 Which level are L2 You use full stops and capital letters in the right you? way. L1 You are still forgetting your capitals and full stops sometimes; and sometimes you are wrong. L0 You are not using capital letters or full stops Figure 6.2.3 With Literacy and Numeracy being such fundamental tools for learning in all other areas of the curriculum, your teaching of these subjects needs to be flexible enough to allow individual pupils to develop at the fastest rate that each is capable of handling. Inevitably this will mean that pupils in the same class can be at differing achievement levels for a given learning outcome, and indeed may be at differing positions along a skill-line or up a skill-ladder. For your teaching to be effective for all pupils it will be necessary for you to organize your class in such a way that you are able to deal with pupils so that their specific needs are catered for. This may involve small group work and in some cases individual help, to ensure that pupils do not get left so far behind that they are no longer profiting from their presence in your classroom. This is always a difficult situation for the teacher because slowing the overall pace of the teaching has the potential to disadvantage the more able pupils. The teachers need to be fully aware of the ability range within pupils in the class and take that into consideration when planning the lesson. A ‘one plan fits all’ would certainly not be the most appropriate and successful way of teaching a highly heterogonous class with pupils of different ability. Preparation for Monitoring - Check Questions Question 1. Have you got established skill-lines and skill-ladders for the Key Strand or sub-strand that you are teaching? And have you got achievement level statements for each of the learning outcomes? If ‘Yes’ proceed to Question 2. If ‘No’ proceed as below. From the course document identify and extract all the objectives that are linked to the same skills but that are recommended to be taught at different years. Identify the learning outcomes that reflect the specific course objectives. From the learning outcomes construct either a skill-line or a skill-ladder. 176 For each learning outcome in a particular skill-line or skill-ladder develop statements that describe levels of achievement towards the learning outcome. Question 2. Have you shown the skill-line or skill-ladder to your pupils? Have you discussed the achievement levels for the particular learning outcome that they are working towards? If pupils see the achievement levels, it helps them to prepare themselves for the learning. If ‘Yes’ proceed to Question 3. If ‘No’ proceed as below. Show the skill-line or skill-ladder to your pupils. Discuss with them what each step represents in terms of learning outcomes. Ask them to decide which learning outcome they are currently striving towards. Show the pupils the achievement level statements for that learning outcome. If none exist, spend some time with the pupils, creating achievement level statements in language that they understand. Show the pupils questions or pieces of pupil work that exemplify the achievement levels. Ask each pupil to decide at what level they feel they currently stand. Ask them to think about the three possibilities of; - where they have been - where they are now - where they are next going Question 3. Do you know at which point on a skill-line or skill-ladder your pupils lie? And do you know at which achievement level each of your pupils lies for a given learning outcome? If ‘Yes’ proceed to Question 4. If ‘No’, proceed as below. Devise questions that reflect the learning outcome for each point on the skill-line, or for each step on the skill-ladder. Ask each pupil to answer the questions, starting at the first point on the skill-line, or at the first step on the skill-ladder. Each pupil hands in their responses to the questions. The position at which the pupil lies on the skill-line or skill-ladder is given by the highest level correct response. This means that the answer at the next point or at the next level was incorrect or inadequate, and does not exhibit the expectation of that learning outcome. This identifies the learning outcome that a pupil is working towards. The answer that the pupil provides to the question will show the achievement level for that pupil in that learning outcome. Discuss the missed learning outcome with each pupil. Compare their answer with the achievement 177 level statements. Get the pupil to recognize what they need to do in order to move to the next achievement level. When the pupil feels ready, provide a second chance question for the learning outcome. Question 4. Have you recorded the current position of each pupil along the skill- line or up the skill-ladder? And have you recorded the achievement level at which they currently lie for a particular learning outcome? If ‘Yes’, then you are in a strong position to take pupils to the next step in their learning. If ‘No’, then proceed as below. The single Key Strand tables shown in Figure 4.2.4 and Figure 4.2.6 provide a guiding structure for a progress record or for a record of achievement. Each cell along a row represents a learning outcome lying in a skill-line or on a skill-ladder. By shading in a whole cell or a portion of the cell in the row representing the skill-line or skill-ladder, you can maintain a visual record of the progress being made by each pupil. Examples of the modified Key Strand tables are shown in Figure 6.2.1 and Figure 6.2.2. 178 6.3 Providing Feedback Feedback is the process whereby information gathered during the teaching and learning is made available to both the teacher and the pupil. The main purpose is to find out whether pupils have achieved the learning outcomes. If not, what are the main areas of weaknesses and strengths of each pupil? Teachers also make use of the process to find out how to better their teaching, what extra assistance does each pupil need. As a teacher, you are involved in feedback both as a receiver of the information and as a producer. In the classroom, you receive feedback from your pupils, and your pupils receive feedback from you. The communications that go on between you and your pupils are heavily loaded with feedback. Pupil ask question Teacher gauges Feedback corrects learning Learning deficiency Teacher responds to question Figure 6.3.1 Studies have shown that quality and timely feedback is an effective way of improving the level of achievement of pupils, and is becoming an important part of the teaching and learning process. Since feedback is so much part of teaching as well as learning, every opportunity for providing feedback should be taken as an opportunity to improve learning. While the impact of feedback is not guaranteed, it will undoubtedly improve learning if you have in mind, and deliberately aim for, improvement in learning. 179 For example; John has completed a calculation. You assess his work and find that there E were some faults and errors. The left hand box shows one way of providing John with feedback. The right hand box shows a different way of providing the feedback. It looks as though you have added the top and bottom of the fractions wrongly 1 3 5 1 2 + = because = 4 8 8 4 8 X 1 3 4 You have said + = . You have 4 8 12 simply added the two numbers at the top and the two numbers at the bottom. Can you see your mistake? Figure 6.3.2 Beatrice writes a paragraph on Island Countries in the Pacific. The left E hand box shows one way of providing Beatrice with feedback. The right hand box shows a different way of providing the feedback. Some of the islands you mention are not countries. Viti Levu is an island in Fiji, Tarawa is an island in Kiribati, ‘Eua is an Island in Tonga, Savai’i is an island in 4/10 Samoa. You need to be able to differentiate between a country and an island in a country. Figure 6.3.3 In each of these cases feedback is given, but only the feedback in the right hand box is likely to improve the performance of John and Beatrice as it clearly indicates what both need to do. Feedback that only gives marks or grades does not provide pupils with the information they need in order to benefit from the task that produced the marks and grades. If the feedback is to be useful to the pupil it must clearly describe what the pupil must do in order to improve or achieve a higher level of achievement. In the case of John a check needs to be made to see that he recognizes the error in his fraction sum. In the case of Beatrice, she needs to see what kinds of responses would have gained her the six marks that were lost. 180 Providing Beatrice with achievement level statements would help her to see her weakness and indicate what she needs to aim for. Tying activities to learning outcomes can be helpful to pupils because the value and purpose of the activity will be more directly apparent. So discussing the learning outcomes: “pupils will be able to add simple fractions with both same and different denominators” and “pupils will know and identify Pacific Countries” may help John and Beatrice to see what they are aiming for in order to satisfy the learning outcomes. It also helps them to understand what effort they need to achieve not only the level required but the effort to achieve higher levels if they wish. Spontaneous feedback For the information to have the desired effect on improving the teaching and learning it is important that the feedback of the information takes place as close as possible to when the teaching/learning takes place. This means that the information collection needs to take place as part of the teaching and learning and the information is therefore made available to both you as the teacher and your pupils immediately after. Feedback which follows immediately after a pupil attempts a task is most valuable. If there is any length of time between pupil output and teacher feedback, there is an inevitable weakening of the link between the two. Three situations in the classroom lend themselves to spontaneous and immediate feedback. - oral question and answer sessions - periods of observation by the teacher - activities of short duration that pupils mark themselves after completion In each of these cases the feedback is provided orally. Delayed feedback Where pupils are doing written work, it may be several days before you are able to look at the work and add guiding comments as feedback. A delay is often inevitable, but you should be conscious of the need to get the feedback completed as soon as possible. Long delays can result in pupils repeating the same errors simply because they have not received the feedback that would have enlightened them. Delayed feedback tends to be restricted to written work that has to be read and marked by the teacher. In this case feedback is provided in written form. One form of delayed feedback that is given orally relates to a written task that a class has completed, in which there are certain points of weakness common to many pupils. 181 In this case it is more time-efficient to return to these weaknesses as part of the next lesson, in which case the feedback would be oral and by discussion. The features of strong feedback are; - given with as little delay as possible, - precisely identifies the weaknesses, - detailed enough for pupils to recognize routes to improvement, - conforms and links with learning outcomes, - recommends achievable changes, - carries a tone of encouragement. 182 6.4 Promoting Progress Monitoring progress is one thing, but it has greater educational value if it is part of a wider process of promoting progress. This means that the information you gather by monitoring pupil progress must be used to guide pupils in the direction of continuing progress. The earlier sections (4.1 to 4.4) provide guidance on breaking down a course so that skill-lines and skill-ladders can be developed which show clearly how learning outcomes define progress along particular paths. Section 6.2 provides guidance on monitoring pupil progress by linking their development to the achievement levels that lead towards the learning outcomes. All of this information is there to be used for the purpose of promoting learning and thereby promoting progress. The general term we use to describe this wealth of information is ‘feedback’ and this has been discussed in 6.3. What impedes pupil progress? There are a number of conditions which contribute to the state whereby pupil progress is either slow or failing in some way. These include: 1. pupils having no vision of ‘where they are going’ in their learning. 2. pupils not knowing where they currently stand in terms of an achievement level for a learning outcome. 3. teacher not making use of valuable feedback opportunities. 4. teacher not ensuring that the groundwork for learning outcomes is done. 5. teacher not having the competency to identify specific areas of weaknesses of pupils What promotes pupil progress? Progress is based upon a solid platform, and the features of that platform are laid out in Chapter 2. The overall effect is to ensure that: 1. pupils have a clear understanding of ‘where they stand now’. 2. pupils have a clear vision of the requirements for the next step. 3. pupils are given opportunities to demonstrate movement from one achievement level to the next within a learning outcome. 4. pupils are provided with clear, regular, advisory feedback. 5. teacher continuously planning opportunities for pupils to apply and improve their developing skills. A question, a task, an activity, that you devise to check on one or more learning outcomes, will create information that tells you whether or not pupils have met the learning outcomes; and if not, at what achievement level they currently stand. The information will give you just one of four general situations. 183 Situation 1: None of the pupils have shown they have met the learning outcome; their difficulties vary and are widespread. Situation 2: A group of pupils have not shown that they have met the learning outcome; they are experiencing a common difficulty that places them at a particular achievement level. Situation 3: A few pupils have not shown that they have met the learning outcome; they have differing individual difficulties, and lie at differing achievement levels. Situation 4: All the pupils have shown that they have met the learning outcome. Situation number 4 is obviously the most pleasing and allows you and your pupils to look forward to the next stage. Whereas situations 1, 2, and 3, will require some specific action in order to change the situation. Correcting Situation 1 None of the pupils have shown they have met the learning outcome; their difficulties vary and are widespread. The responses given by the pupils to the question, task or activity that you used to check the status of learning for an outcome, will provide you with strong indications of specific weaknesses, but may not tell you why those weaknesses exist. 1. Ask the class what they think causes the difficulties. Gather their suggestions on the blackboard. Use a show of hands to see how much support each suggestion receives. 2. Reconstruct a lesson that takes account of the pupil suggestions. Re- teach with the revised lesson format. 3. Ask pupils if they are ready to be rechecked for the learning outcome. 4. If you and the pupils feel the time is right, then have a second attempt at a question, task or activity for the learning outcome. Figure 6.4.1 184 Correcting Situation 2 A group of pupils have not shown that they have met the learning outcome; they are experiencing a common difficulty that places them at a particular achievement level. The responses given by the pupils to the question, task or activity that you used to check the status of learning for an outcome, tells you what the specific weakness is, but may not tell you why that weakness exists. 1. In discussion with the group, get them to identify and acknowledge the specific difficulty. 2. Ask the group what they think causes the specific difficulty for them. Discuss with them possible ways of overcoming the difficulty. Agree on a plan of action. 3. Provide the group members with materials and examples that focus explanation on the particular point of difficulty. 4. Let the group members work together in talking out, and trying out, approaches that may lead to a successful meeting of the learning outcome. If you and the group feel the time is right, then have a second attempt at a question, task or activity for the learning outcome. Figure 6.4.2 Correcting Situation 3 A few individuals have not shown that they have met the learning outcome; they have differing individual difficulties, and lie at differing achievement levels. The responses given by the pupils to the question, task or activity that you used to check the status of learning for an outcome, tells you what the specific weakness is for each pupil, but may not tell you why those weaknesses exist. 1. Have one on one, or one on two discussions with the pupil/s having difficulty. Get them to acknowledge and identify their difficulty. 2. If the pupils agree, then attach a peer-teacher to each. The peer-teacher must also be happy with the arrangement, and must be one who has shown strong competence at the learning outcome. 3. Let the pupil and peer-teacher work together until they indicate that they believe the difficulty has been overcome. 4. If the pupil and the peer-teacher feel the time is right, then give the pupil a second attempt at a question, task or activity for the learning outcome. Figure 6.4.3 It is crucial that all teachers are in a position to determine which situation each of their pupils is in relation to each learning outcome. If teachers are in no position to identify where their pupils are then they will not be in a position to assist them. And this is where the job of a teacher becomes at its most challenging and at its most important! 185 Chapter Seven 7.1 Records and Recording Throughout this module there have been examples of opportunities for recording information about the progress and achievement of pupils. Almost all of the activities in Chapter four have elements of recording built into them. Collecting information on the performance of pupils has little value if pupils do not benefit from the process. Pupils should be able to use the information to help improve their learning. Teachers should also be able to use the information collected to improve their teaching and the school should also use such information to help make the school more effective. At the national level, each country would like to ensure that the education system is serving its pupils. It is important therefore that countries have ways of measuring and reporting the outcomes of schooling. Parents as well as other stakeholders have reasonable expectations of schools that they would result in the acquisition by pupils of appropriate skills and improvement in their general educational attainment. To determine the extent of improvement in broad terms, data has to be collected about how pupils are performing and what skills have they achieved. Many of us have been guilty of being excellent record keepers, with immaculate mark books showing pages of numbers representing the performance of our pupils in numerous activities. Most often the numbers represent a mark out of some total. These records have tended to be primarily used as a basis for reporting performance; not early to pupils, but late to parents and others. Very rarely do the records say anything meaningful about progress, and very rarely do the records offer specific information on pupil strengths and weaknesses. It is true that you are expected to maintain adequate records for the purpose of reporting to parents and others. But if pupils are to benefit from your information gathering and record keeping, the process must become an integral part of the teaching-learning dynamic; a process that influences the next phase of your teaching. Record-keeping is an integral part of teaching practice and assessment, and is a fundamental tool in reporting. Records of pupil achievements provide the means of bringing together a school’s policies and assessment practices, recording and reporting into a coherent process as indicated in Figure 7.1.1. 186 Assessing Achievement Reporting Recording Achievement Achievement Figure 7.1.1 (Adapted from “Effective teacher assessment; C.Mitchell & V.Koshy, 1993) Formal reporting needs to be based on accurately recorded data. Key information contained in such records is important for analysing the continuity of pupil progress and coordinating assessment results which provide the basis for purposeful reporting on pupil progress. Pupil academic record therefore provides both a guideline for recording what is important as well as providing a mechanism for collecting that data easily, throughout the year. Year-end reporting then becomes an exercise of simply indicating which items are important enough to go forward as evidence of academic achievement. You will notice that nowhere in this module are scores or marks mentioned, except in the section on ‘Feedback’ where the point was made that giving a pupil a mark or a grade is not in itself helpful. There needs to be specific guidance that leads pupils along a path to improvement. Figures 7.1.2 and 7.1.3 depict the purposes of recording and the format of the records. In Figure 7.1.2, the emphasis on the pupil-teacher dynamic is emphasized by the bolder representation of the left-hand-side of the figure. In Figure 7.1.3, of the eight listed formats, six are directly accessed by pupils and are designed to provide feedback that improves performance; one is accessed by the teacher and is a means of modifying teaching; and one is made available to third parties such as parents, and school administration. There is a ratio of seven to one in favour of opportunities for pupils to receive guidance towards improvement. And that is how it should be. The records include both those produced by the pupils and those produced by the teacher. Recording can be considered by its purpose, or by its format. Recording for purpose falls into two main categories. The first and most frequent purpose is ‘feedback’. The second purpose has been to record ‘achievement’. Figure 7.1.3 represents these purposes. 187 Recording Purpose Feedback Achievement To Pupils To Teacher Progress Attainment Figure 7.1.2 The recording format for information has appeared as a variety of styles, and these are represented in Figure 7.1.3. On Lesson Plan: The lesson plan recommends the provision of recording feedback generated during the lesson. T e appraisal portion is to record aspects of the lesson h that are worth repeating or need modifying. An example of the recording opportunity is shown in the example listed under the ‘Lesson Plan’ box of Figure 7.1.3. 188 g u r e 7 . 1 . 3 F i 189 By Tally Chart: The tally chart records numbers of pupils who either meet a learning outcome or fail to meet a learning outcome. The chart will specify whether it is inadequate or successful performance that is being counted, and it will specify exactly which questions are represented by the tally. The purpose of the tally chart is to pinpoint areas of learning that the class as a whole needs to revisit. Most often the information collected by the tally chart arrives anonymously and for this reason is best used to gauge the class not a particular individual. Examples of various tally charts are listed under the ‘Tally Chart’ box of Figure 7.1.3. On Pupil Work: There will be times when it is appropriate to write comments directly onto pupils’ work. This is the traditional idea of ‘marking’ the work, and is a form of recording information on performance. Wherever possible you should offer praise for the successful portions, and constructive encouragement and guidance on those parts that are to be improved or corrected. Examples of comments on pupil work are listed under the ‘Pupil Work’ box of Figure 7.1.3. By Checklist: Figure 7.1.3 shows the ‘Checklist’ box subdivided into ‘Simple’ and ‘By Criteria’. A simple checklist only requires a or a depending upon a particular item being satisfied or not satisfied. A checklist that falls into the ‘By Criteria’ format is often called a ‘Rating Scale’, as the expected range of performance cannot be judged by a simple or . There are different levels of performance, and these levels are described by the criterion descriptors present in the checklist. Examples of both types of checklist are listed separately in Figure 7.1.3 under their respective boxes of ‘Simple’ and ‘By Criteria’. On Data Collection Sheet: A ‘Data Collection Sheet’ holds notes written by you either as a pupil completes an activity or immediately after the pupil completes an activity. It provides a formal way of gathering information on performance. It may be completed as the pupil performance is being observed, and therefore acts as a memory to a performance that otherwise would have no record. For example, if a pupil is giving a short talk on a topic, notes are made during the talk that can aid you in discussing the performance with the pupil after they have finished. Data Collection Sheets can be used in conjunction with a checklist (of either type), so that you can record both for feedback and also for achievement of learning outcomes. Examples are listed under the ‘Data Collection Sheet’ box of Figure 7.1.3. 190 Progress Record: Progress Records are designed to record pupil performance in activities for which it is normal to expect gradual improvement. It may be that a particular learning outcome can be described at various levels of competency, and a Progress Record can record the levels a pupil reaches over a period of time. Examples are listed under the ‘Progress Record’ in Figure 7.1.3. Mark-book Many of our schools have no specific policy on how to keep records of pupils’ achievements. Consequently many teachers have their own way of keeping records. In many instances teachers keep a mark-book where all marks from the various assessments are kept. The problem however is that the records in the mark-book are either marks or grades and give no or little indication of what pupils are able to do or where they are having learning difficulties. While teacher mark-book allow for pupils’ results in the various assessments to be recorded, they exist as individual and often unrelated evidence of pupil’s achievements. Such records fail to provide a clear indication of how the pupil has progressed and often fail to give the teacher any insight into the pupil’s development or his/her ability to work in groups or communicate ideas. Figure 7.1.4 gives an example of part of a typical record found in a teacher’s mark book for a Grade Six Maths class in 2005. Grade: Six Subject: Maths Year: 2005 Name Test 1 Test 2 Project Homework Test 3 Total (20) (30) (15) (10) (50) (125) Donald Smith 9 14 12 5 28 68 Peter Davies 12 24 10 4 26 76 Mary Low 6 7 9 8 9 39 Harry Porter 11 15 10 6 26 68 Pamela Jones 10 6 9 4 21 50 Timothy Noa 6 15 12 1 14 48 Richard Lolo 14 21 14 7 16 72 Doreen Parker 8 13 6 5 25 57 Eileen Khan 9 15 8 5 18 55 Masi Kalolo 11 14 12 7 21 65 Paul Hana 14 26 13 7 34 94 Lulu Kosi 18 24 14 9 45 110 Peta Lotu 15 18 12 7 34 86 Lavinia Amos 12 15 7 4 28 66 Edward Koroi 8 14 5 8 20 55 Figure 7.1.4 As seen from the record in Figure 7.1.4. it would be difficult to monitor the progress of each pupil other than to comment on how they performed in each of the assessments. It would be possible to say that 191 Lulu Kosi with a total assessment score of 110 out of a total of 125, did well in all the assessments but it would not be possible to identify what areas would Lulu possibly need assistance in and what specific areas she did well in. Similarly it would be possible to say that Mary Low needs a lot of help in Maths but one cannot specifically state what specific help Mary Low needs in order to improve her performance. 192 7.2 Record of Achievements Recording pupil achievements provides the opportunity for teachers to document and record the development of certain qualities or skills in each pupil throughout the duration of their course of study. It also provides each pupil with the opportunity to reflect on their experiences and achievements. Such records provide the platform for reporting such achievements and experiences to parents, teachers as well as other stakeholders. One however needs to be clear of what needs to be recorded, that is, what achievements and experiences need to be recorded. Achievements are those learning events relating to the development of particular skills or learning outcomes and have been verified with documentary evidence through relevant assessment methods. Verification may be in the form of the results of an activity designed for the purpose of providing evidence from pupils. Experiences on the other hand are opportunities that contribute to the development of particular skills for which there has been no formal assessment. For example, the pupil may have represented his/her country in sporting events, Such experiences are valuable as they may significantly contribute to the development of sporting qualities. Pupil achievements and experiences that could be recorded may be directly related to their courses and programme of study, or extra curricula experiences or related to real life activities outside of school such as involvement in community organizations. The challenge for teachers is to identify the relevant experiences and achievements and to record them in ways that allow them to be easily retrieved. This allows you as the teacher to identifying areas of strengths and those areas that need further improvement and assistance. A record of achievement (RoA) is one such record. A RoA is a document which the teacher can develop over time and through all learning experiences. Once developed, it can demonstrate the range of skills applicable to each area of study, and which the pupil has achieved, that are relevant to life outside the school. It can also indicate those areas of skills and learning experiences where the pupil needs further development. A pupil’s record of achievement is expected to raise awareness about the process of learning and the development of personal transferable skills general academic skills and subject specific skills which should help the pupil to reflect on his/her learning and evaluate the developmental changes that have taken place. It also helps provide the teacher with a structure to work with especially in addressing those skill areas the pupil still lack. 193 For the pupil, the record of achievement helps in organizing all relevant information about his or her learning while at the same time provides a framework for recording skills developed over time, so that the pupil can easily recognise the range of their achievements over time. It also helps by summarising all the pupil has achieved thus acting as a reminder of the pupil’s achievements. It provides a more succinct record of a pupil’s life, and achievements during the learning. The Record of Achievement is the ultimate recording mechanism because it registers all those achievements and experiences as well as learning outcomes that the pupil has met. As more and more outcomes are met, the profile of the pupil in terms of learning outcomes grows. Two examples are listed under ‘Record of Achievement’ in Figure 7.1.2. Figure 7.2.1 to 7.2.6 show the Record of Achievement in Language for pupil Tari. Figure 7.2.1 shows the record as it stands at the end of Year 2. Tari is doing well overall, as the majority of learning outcomes expected to be achieved by the end of Year 2, have been achieved. Handwriting is advanced at this stage. ‘Pronunciation’ is showing some weakness and this is having an effect on ‘Expression’ when reading aloud. Figure 7.2.2 shows the record as it stands at the end of Year 3. Again Tari is doing well overall. ‘Pronunciation’ and ‘Expression’ have advanced though Tari is still behind the target outcomes for Year 3. Figure 7.2.3 shows the record as it stands at the end of Year 5. This has been a really good year for Tari. The record shows that the previous weaknesses in ‘Pronunciation’ and ‘Expression’ have been eliminated. Tari’s ‘Listening’ skills are well advanced, and ‘Handwriting quality remains a strength; a little slow but of high quality. Figure 7.2.4 shows the record as it stands at the end of Year 6. Despite remaining strong overall, further improvement was expected in ‘Expression’, ‘Composition’ and the ‘Use of Adjectives’. These are areas to work on in the future. This Record of Achievement should be forwarded so that the Year 7 Language teacher is aware of the current standing. 194 Record of Achievement – Language Name Tari End of Grade 2 Learning Outcomes Key Strand Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade 1 2 3 4 5 6 I.Listening A. Identify B. Distinguish C. Comprehend II.Speaking A. Pronounce B. Communicate III.Reading A. Identify B. Express IV.Writing A. Composition V. Handwriting A. Shape B. Copy C. Speed V1. Grammar A. Identify Parts B. Verb Tenses C. Use of adjectives D. Punctuation E. Time markers F. Sentence Complexity Figure 7.2.1 195 Record of Achievement – Language Name Tari End of Grade 3 Learning Outcomes Key Strand Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade 1 2 3 4 5 6 I.Listening A. Identify B. Distinguish C. Comprehend II.Speaking A. Pronounce B. Communicate III.Reading A. Identify B. Express IV.Writing A. Composition V. Handwriting A. Shape B. Copy C. Speed V1. Grammar A. Identify Parts B. Verb Tenses C. Use of adjectives D. Punctuation E. Time markers F. Sentence Complexity Figure 7.2.2 196 Record of Achievement – Language Name Tari End of Grade 5 Learning Outcomes Key Strand Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade 1 2 3 4 5 6 I.Listening A. Identify B. Distinguish C. Comprehend II.Speaking A. Pronounce B. Communicate III.Reading A. Identify B. Express IV.Writing A. Composition V. Handwriting A. Shape B. Copy C. Speed V1. Grammar A. Identify Parts B. Verb Tenses C. Use of adjectives D. Punctuation E. Time markers F. Sentence Complexity Figure 7.2.3 197 Record of Achievement – Language Name Tari End of Grade 6 Learning Outcomes Key Strand Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade 1 2 3 4 5 6 I.Listening A. Identify B. Distinguish C. Comprehend II.Speaking A. Pronounce B. Communicate III.Reading A. Identify B. Express IV.Writing A. Composition V. Handwriting A. Shape B. Copy C. Speed V1. Grammar A. Identify Parts B. Verb Tenses C. Use of adjectives D. Punctuation E. Time markers F. Sentence Complexity Figure 7.2.4 The grey cells of Figures 7.2.5 and 7.2.6 indicate cells that do not contain learning outcomes for that skill-line at that particular level. The green cells represent learning outcomes achieved for that particular skill-line and at the indicated year levels. At the end of Year 4 Tari is behind expectations in most of the skill- lines. During Year 5 particular help will be needed in geometry and measurement. Tari will benefit from a combination of practice and one-on-one advice in the areas of ordering, geometry and measurement. 198 Record of Achievement – Mathematics Name Tari End of Grade 4 Learning Outcomes Key Strand Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade 1 2 3 4 5 6 I.Numeration A. Count B. Read & Write C. Distinguish II.Ordering A. Compare B. Interpolate C. Estimate D. Order E. Count & Write III.Operations A. Addition 1. Decompose 2. Whole numbers 3. Decimals 4. Fractions Com.statement B. Subtraction 1. Whole number 2. Decimals 3. Fractions 4. Com.statement C. Multiplication 1. W/ numbers 2. Decimals 3. Fractions D. Division 1. W/numbers 2. Decimals IV.Geometry A. Orientation B. Plane shapes C. Solids D. Drawing V. Measurement A. Length B. Area C. Mass D. Volume E. Money F. Time G. Statistics Figure 7.2.5 199 Record of Achievement – Mathematics Name Tari End of Grade 6 Learning Outcomes Key Strand Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade 1 2 3 4 5 6 I.Numeration A. Count B. Read & Write C. Distinguish II.Ordering A. Compare B. Interpolate C. Estimate D. Order E. Count & Write III.Operations A. Addition 1. Decompose 2. Whole numbers 3. Decimals 4. Fractions 5. Com.statement B. Subtraction 1. Whole number 2. Decimals 3. Fractions 4. Com.statement C. Multiplication 1. W/umbers 2. Decimals 3. Fractions D. Division 1. Whole numbers 2. Decimals IV.Geometry A. Orientation B. Plane shapes C. Solids D. Drawing V. Measurement A. Length B. Area C. Mass D. Volume E. Money F. Time G. Statistics Figure 7.2.6 200 It has been mentioned on many occasions, in the preceding sections that the measure of pupil progress in a subject relates directly to the achievement of specific learning outcomes embedded in the course objectives as outlined in the course document. A pupil who is successfully achieving the expected level in the learning outcomes of the course is progressing in the right direction. The learning outcomes are achieved one by one as you and your pupils cover the course material through the teaching/learning process. Since there is considerable time involved in completing a course it naturally follows that there may be long periods leading up to the monitoring of the extent to which your pupils achieve the specific learning outcomes. Also, pupils will not all successfully achieve the learning outcomes at the same time. Therefore you need to have in place some method of recording pupil success as they work towards fully achieving the learning outcomes. This record should be available continuously so that record entries can be made at any time and pupils progress continuously updated with the availability of more information. The format of the “Record of Achievement” will depend greatly on the course structure. In addition to the format used in Figures 7.2.1 to 7.2.6, Figure 7.2.7 gives another example. In Figure 7.2.7, the Record of Achievement form has been designed to suit a Grade 7 Science course. The course book divides the Grade 7 content into the content sections of “Measurement”, “Water”, “Living Things”, “Magnetism and Electricity”, “Reproduction, Growth and Development”. Each content section is given letter codes, in this case, M, W, LT, ME, and RGD. Each of the content areas lists the learning outcomes representing successful content coverage. Each learning outcome is further coded on the cognitive or practical skill implied by the outcome. These are listed as “Knowledge”, “Understanding”, “Application”, and “Practical”. Each cell, on the Record of Achievement form Figure 7.2.7, therefore represents a specific learning outcome that can be directly traced back to the course document. As a pupil achieves a learning outcome, a ring can be drawn around the number that represents the outcome in Figure 7.2.7. So for example W9, which is a Water-Knowledge learning outcome is represented in the course document as: “know that water is present in all living things (and in the soil) and that it is essential for their survival” In Figure 7.2.8, the “Record of Achievement” form has been designed to suit a Language (LA) course that runs from Grade 1 to Grade 6. The course book shows content sections based on the skills of “Listening”, “Speaking”, “Reading”, “Writing”, “Handwriting” and “Grammar”. 201 From the course book the specific learning outcomes can be extracted for each skill area, at each of the six grade levels. If each content section is given a letter code, in this case LAL, LAS, LAR, LAW, LAHW, LAG, and LASP, then the specific learning outcomes relating to each skill can be identified by extending the letter code. So, for example, LAW can become 2LAW1, which identifies it as a Grade 2 specific learning outcome, and it is the 1st learning outcome under the Key Strand of ‘Writing’ . Grade Skill Outcome section number 2 Writing 1 2LAW1 The specific learning outcome extracted reads: “Pupils can write short simple sentences on a connected topic, using full stops and capital letters”. The cell representing the learning outcome 2LAW1 is shown in Figure 7.2.8, with the word ‘Example’. For the Language course the same Key Strands run throughout the years from Grade 1 to Grade 6, and therefore the development of each skill can be monitored on the ‘Record of Achievement’, over this period. 202 1 1 7 6 1 1 7 8 8 1 6 1 6 5 Practical 7 7 1 5 2 2 6 6 2 : Patrick Pupil Application 1 4 7 9 1 7 1 5 1 3 1 2 6 5 1 1 4 1 4 5 1 1 0 1 4 7 9 Understanding 3 6 ACHIEVEMENT 4 1 3 5 OF 12 1 4 5 Figure 7.2.7 3 2 Grade: RECORD 1 3 1 2 8 0 1 1 2 1 8 9 1 0 7 9 5 8 4 Knowledge 4 4 3 3 1 7 3 2 2 Science 1 1 1 : gs i n h Subject M W LT Water and ME RGD Magnetism Electricity Measurement Living T Reproduction, Growth and Development 203 Record of Achievement Subject: Language Name: Tari Year: End of Grade 3 Learning Outcomes Key Strand Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3 Grade 4 Grade 5 Grade 6 I. Listening A. Identify B. Distinguish C. Comprehend II. Speaking A. Pronounce B. Communicate III. Reading A. Identify B. Express IV. Writing A. Composition Example V. Handwriting A. Shape B. Copy C. Speed V1. Grammar A. Identify Parts B. Verb Tenses C. Use of adjectives D. Punctuation E. Time markers F. Sentence Complexity Figure 7.2.8 204 7.3 Progress Records Pupil progress reports are valuable tools for helping you keep stay on track of your pupils’ progress throughout the year. Not only do they allow you to keep track of your pupil’s achievements in relation to expectations, they allow you to gauge their progress in the various skills and learning outcomes in their programme of study thus making it easier for both you and the pupil to take stock of the areas where pupils need to improve and At the same time, progress reports are a useful mechanism for ensuring a constructive dialogue and feedback between you and your pupil. As a mechanism for tracking pupils’ progress throughout their course of study, pupils’ progress reports become property of the school and will be used to document the pupil’s progress in his/her programme and set clear goals so that pupils will know what is expected of them in order to achieve the expected standard. Moreover, in cases where the pupil fails to make satisfactory progress, the progress report will serve as a basis for identifying the necessary intervention. Progress records provide the basis for you as the teacher to monitor pupils’ performance as well as to carry out a review of each pupil’s progress in order to determine whether there are academic and learning issues that need to be discussed with individual pupils throughout the year. Such review can identify those pupils who are on target to achieving the expected outcomes as well as those considered to be “at risk” of missing the target. It also provides the opportunity to identify those who have shown a level of performance that does not meet the required standard. E For example, one skill that pupils develop over a period of time is that of catching a ball. Pupils take differing amounts of time to develop this skill. It is therefore necessary for your observations to be intermittent and spread out over many months, possibly years. The ultimate learning outcome may be; “Pupils can catch a ball with confidence no matter what position the ball arrives in, providing it is within arms length.” The learning outcome is developed slowly by passing through different levels of competence. Different stages of competence can be expressed as achievement levels, and the achievement levels can form the pathway to meeting the full learning outcome. 205 For example; Catching a Ball Level Achievement Levels 4 Ball caught every time when arriving at various angles 3 Ball caught every time when direct 2 Ball caught at least 3 out of 5 when direct 1 Ball caught 1 out of 5 attempts when direct 0 Ball is always dropped Figure 7.3.1 The ball catching example also lends itself to informal and spontaneous observation of pupils. You may notice that while Sisi and Siro are playing, both are throwing a ball to each other with full confidence in catching. There is no need to wait for an ‘official’ activity before recording the fact that both Sisi and Siro are competent ball catchers and have satisfied the learning outcome. It is worthwhile telling Sisi and Siro what you have noticed, and that you are going to record their success. Progress Record Catching and Throwing Pupil 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th Amos 0 1 2 1 3 3 3 3 4 Fatu 1 1 2 2 4 Kalo 0 1 2 2 4 Lulu 0 0 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 Mala 1 2 3 3 4 Shem 1 1 3 4 Taun 1 2 3 3 4 Yona 1 2 3 3 4 Sisi 2 3 2 4 Figure 7.3.2 Figure 7.3.2 shows the level of achievement reached by each pupil in a class. The record covers a period of eighteen months between the 1st observation and the last recorded 10th observation. All the pupils apart from Lulu have reached the full learning outcome, which means that they are competent catchers and throwers of a ball. 206 Pupils’ progress report helps teachers to explore the reasons for the pupil’s progress difficulties establish what needs to be achieved by the pupils and the effort that is needed and also consider any additional learning support the pupil might need and how this might be provided in order to address the difficulty. Figure 7.3.3 shows a Progress Record for Lam who is in Class 4K, a Grade 4 class. The record is for the Key Strand of ‘Grammar’ in the Language course. Interpretation of the record reveals that Lam can: - identify parts of speech to achievement level 2 for the Grade 4 learning outcome; - use differing verb tenses to the level expected by the Grade 3 learning outcome; - use adjectives to achievement level 1 for the Grade 3 learning outcome; - use punctuation to a level expected by the Grade 4 learning outcome; - use time markers to a level expected by the Grade 4 learning outcome; - develop sentences to achievement level 1 for the Grade 4 learning outcome; - transform sentences to a level expected by the Grade 4 learning outcome. Lam is on track in a number of skills, but is lagging behind in: - the use of verb tenses - use of adjectives - developing sentence complexity. Lam needs to be given exercises specifically targeting these areas, coupled with guiding feedback. Figure 7.3.4 shows a progress record for Lam who is in Class 4K, a Grade 4 class. The record is for the Key Strand ‘Operations’, sub-strand ‘Addition’, in the Mathematics course. Interpretation of the record reveals that Lam can: • decompose numbers up to the level expected by the Grade 6 learning outcome • add whole numbers up to the level expected by the Grade 5 learning outcome decimal numbers up to the level expected by the Year 5 learning outcome • add fractions up to the level expected by the Grade 5 learning outcome • complete addition statements up to the level expected at Grade 6 Lam is on track in all the skill-lines of addition, and is in fact ahead of expectations and would benefit from ‘extension’ exercises that challenge him above the level expressed by the learning outcomes. Alternatively, Lam could be encouraged to devote some of the ‘Mathematics’ time to correct weaknesses in his ‘Language’ course. 207 Progress Record – ‘Grammar’ Name ……Lam……… Grade ……4K… Year …2006… V1. Learning Outcomes Grammar (skill-ladders) Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3 Grade 4 Grade 5 Grade 6 Identify Parts Common nouns, Adverbs, Abstract nouns verbs, pronouns, conjunctions adjectives Verb Tenses Uses common Uses common Uses continuous Uses conditional Evidence of verbs with both verbs with future form of common form of common expanded present and past tense verbs verbs repertoire of tenses verbs Use of Adjectives Size, colour, Regular Irregular appearance, comparative and comparative and superlative superlative Punctuation Uses full stops Uses commas, Uses exclamation and capital speech marks, marks letters question marks Time Markers Uses: Uses: Uses: today, tomorrow, always, never, next, often, yesterday, sometimes before, after Sentence Complexity Simple Simple connected Complex Paragraphing Logically ordered Varied range Sentence Transformation Simple to complex Complex to simple Figure 7.3.3 208 e 00 i t h w ng g i t type a l s a m 5 ; 1 2 o u p i t h t h 100,0 i i w ator f t h e i n w 6 o g i t i s or 2-di s o and 2 Grade u t r e g r t i o n s t or tor t h o t o 3 decim i t 1-d ina ina b ers up t u p t o 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 up r a c t i o n s i t denom m m nd 32; 5 m m g m ces o f o f r a c f f e r en 6 . 1 Nu 6 . 2 Su and w 6 . 3 su pla 6 . 4 Tw 2-di and wT di deno deno 16 a nd 48;a 0 a l i t h o 10,00 o u t w 5 i t h w Grade ng t o 2 decim ers up t i n a t o r b u p t o 1 0 , 0 0 0 u pi up e 1 d i g i t m es i t h a n d 3 m c o f r a c t i o n s 006… 5 . 1 Nu 5 . 2 Sum w regro 5 . su pla 5 . 4 Tw sam denom 2 r … tcomes o t h o u t i w Yea t o 1 , 0 0 0 ng ng Ou Grade 4 b ers up t u p u pi m i t h a n d 4 . 1 Nu 1,000 4 . 2 Sum w regro o – g u r e 7 . 3 . 4 Learni F i … 1 0 0 ng b ers up t t o u pi 4 K Grade 3 m i t h a n d i t h o u t … 3 . 1 Nu 100 3 . 2 Sum w w regro o Progress Record – ‘Addition’ … t o 5 0 ng o f r ade 2 g : ⅛ + b = c 100 G Grade b ers up t u p u pi i ons : m t o r i a l i t i o n c t olvin ⅔ a 2 . 1 Nu 50 2 . 2 Sum – no regro 2 . 4 Pic add fr inv ⅓ 2 . 5 Type a + up to … … t o 1 0 o f g : = b … ers up b u p 2 0 i t i o n ons h o l e o m Grade 1 m t o r i a l c t i olvin a , ¼ 1 . 1 Nu to 10 1 . 2 Sum 1 . 4 Pic add fr inv 1 w ½ 1 . 5 Type : a + up t La … … e a m A. N Sub-Strand ‘Addition’ (Skill-lines) Complete 1. Decompose 2. Whole numbers 3. Decimals 4. Fractions 6. statement 209 7.4 Portfolios One way of recording the achievements of pupils is to compile pieces of a pupil’s work and retain them as evidence of what a pupil has achieved, that is, a pupil portfolio. A pupil portfolio is a collection of pieces of work that the pupil has produced. It is a collection that the pupil has chosen to retain and comprise of work the pupil is proud of. A pupil can select, within given constraints, examples of his or her work that fairly reflects his or her achievements over a given period. Portfolios in classrooms today are derived from the visual and performing arts tradition in which they serve to showcase artists' accomplishments and personally favoured works. A portfolio may be a folder containing a pupil's best pieces of work and the pupil's evaluation of the strengths and weaknesses of the pieces. It may also contain one or more works-in-progress that illustrate the creation of a product, such as an essay, evolving through various stages of conception, drafting, and revision. Portfolios are useful as a support to the new instructional approaches that emphasize the pupil's role in constructing understanding and the teacher's role in promoting understanding. For example, in writing instruction, portfolios can function to illustrate the range of assignments, goals, and audiences for which a pupil produced written materials. In addition, portfolios can be a record of the activities undertaken over time in the development of written products. They can also be used to support cooperative teaming by offering an opportunity for pupils to share and comment on each other's work In addition, portfolios are also valued as an assessment tool in themselves as they are a cumulative collection of a pupil’s classroom work. And unlike separate tests, they supplement rather than take time away from instruction. Moreover, many teachers, educators, and researchers believe that portfolio assessments are more effective than "old-style" tests for measuring academic skills and informing instructional decisions. Pupils have over the years been doing assignments in notebooks and folders, so what's exciting and different about portfolios? Portfolios capitalize on pupils' natural tendency to save work and become an effective way to get them to take a second look and think about how they could improve future work. As any teacher or pupil can confirm, this method is a clear departure from the old write, hand in, and forget mentality, where first drafts were considered final products. Although there is no single correct way for developing portfolios, in all of them pupils are expected to collect, select, and reflect. Early in the school year, pupils are pressed to consider: What would I like to reread or share with my parents or a friend? What makes a particular piece of writing, an approach to a mathematics problem, or a write-up of a science project a 210 good product? In building a portfolio of selected pieces and explaining the basis for their choices, pupils generate their own criteria for good work, with teacher and peer input. Pupils need specifics with clear guidelines and examples to get started on their work, so these discussions need to be well guided and structured. The earlier the discussions begin, the better. While portfolios were developed on the model of the visual and performing arts tradition of showcasing accomplishments, portfolios in classrooms today are a highly flexible instructional and assessment tool, adaptable to diverse curricula, pupil age/grade levels, and administrative contexts. All portfolios involve pupils in their own education so that they take charge of their personal collection of work, reflect on what makes some work better, and use this information to make improvements in future work. Research shows that pupils see assessment as something that is done to them on their class work by someone else. Consequently many pupils have little knowledge of what is involved in evaluating their own work. Portfolios provide the structure for involving pupils in developing and understanding criteria for good efforts, in coming to see the criteria as their own, and in applying the criteria to their own work as well as to work of others. Research also shows that pupils benefit from an awareness of the processes and strategies involved in writing, solving a problem, researching a topic, analyzing information, or describing their own observations. Encouraging pupils to build a collection of work over time is a good way of involving them in decisions about quality of work, and the meeting of learning outcomes. Any interest that you are able to nurture in this way will pay dividends for individual pupils; an interested pupil is far more likely to learn than is an uninterested pupil. The act of choosing by the pupil, requires the pupil to think and to pose self questions such as; “Is this the best I can do?” “Is this piece of work good enough for my portfolio?” “Do I want to put this piece of work into my portfolio?” “Shall I replace this piece of work with my other one which I think is better?” Figure 7.4.1 Traditionally a portfolio of work implies work that is two dimensional, for example writing on paper, painting on canvas, photographs and design work. The idea can be extended to include collections of three dimensional objects. These may be pupil constructions such as models, pieces of work generated in wood, metal or plastic. They may also include objects collected in support of some ‘project’. 211 It is probable that the pupil choice of work for inclusion is influenced to a large extent by comment that you have made about the work. In order to avoid this being the sole determinant, a practice of discussing the work with the pupil so that self criticism is as much a part of the decision as are your comments. “Are you happy with this piece of work?” “What do you think are the best bits?” “Do you see anything that you could have done better?” “Do you want to see it in your portfolio?” Figure 7.4.2 Teachers are busy people, and it is not always possible to revisit pieces of individual pupil work when you have already spent time ‘marking’ the work in your own time. So it is unavoidable that some pupil work will carry your comments. For example; A pupil has completed an exercise on determining the ground floor area of the house she lives in. She has found the floor area of each room, and summed the areas of all rooms. The work is correct and clearly laid out. You have commented on the work: Pakoa, I am really pleased with this work. Everything about it shows that you understand ‘area’ very well. Not only that but you have a skill that will be useful when you have your own house and the builder needs to know the area of the room you want to cement!! Figure 7.4.3 Portfolios can quickly become bulky animals. In order to keep them manageable a policy of pruning them needs to be agreed with the pupils. Perhaps each portfolio can have a maximum number of pieces of work, such as twenty. After that if one piece goes into the portfolio, one has to be selected to come out, and perhaps go home with the pupil. Clearly if an inferior piece of work has found its place in a portfolio it will be easy to replace it with one of better quality. This is likely to happen where competency grows in a particular key strand of work. In this case, the piece of work that is present in the portfolio represents the latest achievement level for a given skill or set of skills. For example, pupils are likely to improve in the art of essay writing. Rather than keep a succession of essays in the portfolio, the whole set can be represented by the current best effort. 212 If there is reason to retain pieces of work that shows the development of the pupil competency over a period of time, then the nature of the portfolio will be different from that described above. A pupil portfolio does not contain any pieces of work completed by a pupil. It contains a purposefully selected subset of a pupil’s work that tells a story about the pupil and depends on the purpose of the portfolio. If the purpose is to highlight the progress a pupil has made (growth), the portfolio might contain samples of earlier and later work, often with the pupil assessing the growth. If the purpose is to capture the process of learning and growth of pupil, then the pupil and/or teacher might select items that illustrate the development of one or more skills with reflection upon the process that led to that development. If however the purpose is to showcase the final products or best work of a pupil, then the portfolio would likely contain samples that best exemplify the pupil's current ability to apply relevant knowledge and skills. Portfolios typically are created for one of three purposes: to show growth in a particular area or skill in a pupil, to showcase abilities of a pupil, and to evaluate cumulative achievement a pupil has made. In the case of growth portfolios, the focus is on the progress and changes over time. At the same time it helps develop pupil’s process skills such as self-evaluation as well as goal setting. This also helps in identifying pupils’ strengths and weaknesses while providing the opportunity to track the development of a product or a performance. As the name suggests, showcase portfolios focus on showcasing the abilities of a pupil at the end of a course. Pupils have the opportunity to prepare samples of their best work for various purposes; for employment opportunities, for admission to higher levels of education, for consideration for awards, etc. It also provides the teacher the opportunity to have a better understanding of a pupil’s perception and what they consider as their best, or favourite or most important piece of work. Evaluation portfolios focus on documenting a pupil’s work for the purposes of grading purposes. This means that pupils only include pieces of their work they want to be included in the assessment and be graded. The pupil’s work is documented and assessed relative to pre-determined standards and the grading is then used to place pupils appropriately. In summary, the growth portfolio focuses on the process of learning whereas the showcase portfolio focuses on the products of learning. Of course a portfolio may tell more than one story and include more than one of the three categories indicated above. For example a showcase portfolio might also be used for evaluation purposes and a growth portfolio might also showcase "final" performances or products. The important issue is that the purpose(s) is/are clear throughout the process to pupils, teachers and any other interested audience. Creating a portfolio is an art and needs the close collaboration of both the teacher and the pupil. Before you can design the portfolio task for your pupils to develop, you and your pupils need to be clear about the story the 213 portfolio will be telling. Certainly, you should not assign a portfolio unless you have a compelling reason to do so. Portfolios take time and effort to create, manage and assess. Otherwise they can easily become a burden to you and your pupils if they just become folders filled with pupils’ papers. Both you and your pupils need to believe that the selection of any of their work serves one or more meaningful purposes. In developing portfolios, the following key questions are recommended and answers need to be clearly identified before the development; • What is the purpose(s) of the portfolio? • For what audience(s) will the portfolio be created? • What samples of student work will be included? • What processes (e.g., selection of work to be included, reflection on work, conferencing) will be engaged in during the development of the portfolio? • How will time and materials be managed in the development of the portfolio? • How and when will the portfolio be shared with appropriate audiences? • If the portfolio is to be used for evaluation, when and how should it be evaluated? 214 7.5 Reporting Achievements Reporting is the process of communicating clear and comprehensive information to all stakeholders such as pupils, parents, teachers and the system about what pupils know and can do, along with recommendations for improving the progress and achievement of pupils. This implies that schools should ensure that appropriate mechanism is put in place to collect the specific information relating to the progress and achievement of all of its pupils. It is necessary to make the information available to parents, students and teachers as well as to systems and administrators. All these stakeholders need information so that they can effectively plan instructional programmes and improve learning. Deciding how to present written reports which are accessible and meaningful to stakeholders and remain manageable within the context of all the other demands on teacher time is no easy task. The primary purpose of reporting is to improve pupil learning by providing information to both the pupil and parents about the pupil’s achievements and progress and to indicate areas where further development are necessary. To do this the reporting process must be an integral part of the teaching and learning process. The reporting process should foster partnerships between the teachers and parents in an effort to support the pupil’s learning and progress. The report should then provide a formal record at a point in time of the pupil’s progress and achievements while providing a measure of the school’s accountability for the pupil’s achievements and learning. The report must enable regular monitoring of pupil learning and provide ongoing, constructive feedback to pupils that focuses on ways their learning can be further developed. This process should develop pupils' capacity to reflect on their learning, their successes and areas for further learning and hence assist their development as independent, life-long learners. To be effective, the reporting procedure should reflect the integrated nature of assessment and reporting and based on valid and reliable assessment data. It should be based on a range of evidence from such sources as teacher observations, annotated pupil work samples, tests, portfolios, exhibitions and presentations. Teacher judgments in the reporting process should be based on sound evidence and a shared understanding of standards. Information from reports should be made available to all teachers involved with the pupils during the year and be provided to subsequent teachers as the pupils’ move through their schooling. This process supports teachers to become 'active investigators of pupil learning' and increases their effectiveness. 215 In general the quality of the reporting whether to parents, teachers, pupils or public, is directly related to the general quality of the communication processes within the school. The school has a responsibility to be aware of the needs of parents whose command of the English language and culture hinders communication, and to provide arrangements which assist them to participate in meaningful communication with the school. As some parents find it difficult to make initial contact with schools, procedures which actively encourage parent contact should be established, especially the opportunity reporting provides for teachers, parents and pupils to discuss face to face issues relating to the learning of the pupil. During such discussions teachers must be careful to ensure that any statement made orally or in writing about a pupil to a parent or other person is scrutinized as to its truth and its value to the student. Reporting to parents The purpose of reporting to parents is to provide them with specific information about the learning and development of their children. Comprehensive reporting provides information about pupil strengths as well as areas that need further attention. Parents would like to see improvements in the form of regular summaries of their child’s progress against clear standards of achievement in a range of both academic and non-academic aspects of schooling. Reports to parents should provide a picture of their child's development, over time. This aspect of the reporting process supports the development of effective partnerships for learning between teachers, pupils and their parents. To be effective, these partnerships must be based on trust and the sharing of information to support continuity of pupil learning and growth. This reporting process should be an ongoing and flexible process where pupils, parents and teachers communicate regularly about pupil learning. Such reporting can be as informal as ongoing feedback, a conversation after school or could take the form of: formal interviews, written reports, three way interviews, pupil led conferences, communication diaries and pupil performances. In reporting to parents, teachers communicate information on a pupil's achievement and should also provide plans for the pupil's future learning as well as clear advice on how parents can assist their child's learning. To facilitate this, written reports must be in a form that parents can easily understand and interpret. Currently reports on achievement of pupils may include written reports at end of a course/term/semester/year as well as parent/teacher interviews. In both reporting modes the intention is to provide parents with information about their child’s learning in a clear, accessible and timely manner. The written reports usually contain information on: the progress the pupil has made over the relevant period and how well the pupil is progressing in relation to what is expected against a standard or learning outcome. 216 The report should also include a plan for future learning over the next reporting period supported by the teacher, pupil and parent. The plan should include; reference to a pupil's current level of achievement in each outcome, an indication of areas for future development, the effort required for pupils to achieve the required standard in the outcome, a plan to support the achievement of these learning outcomes and specific advice on how parents can support and contribute to the implementation of the plan. In as far as written reports parents want such reports to provide an honest and fair assessment of their children’s progress in all learning areas. Parents also appreciate if such reports: • include information on each pupil’s achievement in relation to curriculum standards and the achievement levels of other pupils; • provide an interpretative comment on pupil performance and constructive advice about how the pupil can improve in the future; • advise parents on how well their children are developing in non- academic areas, including their behaviour, attitude, communication, social skills, and physical development and their achievements in other relevant school activities such as sport, etc; • are provided regularly and in a timely manner to enable parents to respond to any emerging problems; • are clearly worded in language that is readily understood by parents. Reporting to parents often take the form of parent-teacher meetings held at regular intervals during the year either at end of term/year or at end of the course. These meetings are designed to provide an opportunity for all parents to discuss the progress and learning of their children directly with the teachers. These meetings are structured to include both the pupil and the parents in order to encourage pupils to take responsibility for their learning. Parents usually make appointments and are well–structured where parents are given the opportunity to discuss key information about their children’s learning. During the meeting parents, teachers and the pupil have the opportunity to discuss concrete examples of the pupil’s work and to discuss such work with each other. In the end all three parties come to an agreement on the current level of achievement of the pupil as well as what the pupil has yet to achieve in time for the next meeting. Agreement is also reached on how the pupil’s future progress will be supported by the teacher, parents and the pupil. As indicated in section 7.1, collecting information on the performance of pupils has little value if such information does not benefit the pupils. It is unlikely that pupils will benefit from such information if the message contained in the information is not reported back to them so they are able to use the information to help improve their learning. Teachers should also be able to use the information to improve their teaching. Knowing the 217 specific areas of weaknesses of pupils allows teachers to focus their attention on addressing such specific areas in their teaching. It is mandatory that the data collected and recorded on the achievements of pupils are reported to all stakeholders as they are necessary for the betterment of pupils learning and improvement in the effectiveness of the school. Reporting on the achievement of pupils therefore serves different purposes depending on the needs of different key stakeholders. The purpose of reporting to parents is to provide information about the learning and development of their children. Parents should also be able to use the information to decide how best can they support the education of their children but only if they have access to such information. Comprehensive reporting provides information about pupil strengths and areas that need further attention as well as advice on how to support a pupil’s next stage of learning. Parents would like to receive regular feedback on the progress of their children against clear standards of achievement in a range of academic and non-academic aspects of schooling. The school should also be in a position to use such information to help make the school more effective in addressing the needs of its pupils by mobilizing its limited resources to target identified areas of weaknesses. It can also use the information to seek the support from the authorities, from parents as well as other key stakeholders. It is therefore the continual responsibility of the school to report to parents information about the progress of their children. Reporting should focus positively on pupils’ progress and indicate ways to improve performance and overcome difficulties. It is important therefore that everyone involved in the education of children understands that reporting pupils’ progress contributes to the growth and development of the whole person. Reporting provides clear information for future choices for all parties involved. Reporting enables the particular gifts and talents of pupils to be recorded; it traces the growth of independent learning, the creative insights and the development of the pupil's sense of responsibility for learning. It is a support for parents who are leading their children to responsible adulthood. Schools are required and are responsible for reporting to parents on their children’s achievements at least once during the school year. The key consideration is what to report to parents. Some of the information that is usually reported to parents include; • brief particulars of child’s achievements in all key learning areas as well as other activities forming part of the school curriculum; • comments on general progress of the child; • attendance record of the child during the term/year providing the number of possible attendances as well as unauthorised absences 218 • arrangements for discussing the report between the teacher, parents and the child; • the results of any national assessments taken during the term or year; Figure 7.5.1 shows a sample of an end of year report for a Year 4 pupil (Pita E Black) in the key learning areas of Literacy and Numeracy. Key Learning Areas Rating Year Year Year Year Year Year (KLA) 1 2 3 4 5 6 Reading C Writing A Literacy Speaking D Listening D Numeration A Ordering C Numeracy Operations A Geometry B Measurement E Work Habits Needs Help Satisfactory Very good Excellent Effort Behaviour Figure 7.5.1 Ratings: Legend: A Well above the standard expected at this time of year Your child's achievement this year B Above the standard expected at this time of year The expected level of achievement C At the standard expected at this time of year D Below the standard expected at this time of year E Well below the standard expected at this time of year 219 Pita Black Year 4 End of Year What has Pita Achieved? In literacy Pita continues to show outstanding writing skills well above what is expected. His choice of words is excellent. In comparison he is on target with his reading and can explain the key ideas in whatever he reads. However he appears to be having difficulty expressing himself and does not concentrate and listen to what the teacher says. In numeracy Pita is progressing well and has excellent grasp of the number concept and is well above the required standard in the four basic operations. However he is having difficulty understanding basic geometry concepts especially shapes and is performing below expectation. Pita appears to have no comprehension of measurements and cannot relate instruments such as ruler to length, cup to volume, etc. Areas for improvement In reading Pita needs to continue to improve his reading by consistently reading everyday text and summarising key ideas in what he reads. He needs to practice his speaking ability by involving more in oral discussions as well as oral presentation in class. Pita also needs to concentrate more in class so he is able to clearly hear what the teacher says. In numeracy, Pita needs to work more with different shapes so he shows basic properties of different shapes especially number and length of sides as well as associating different shapes with names. Pita needs to seek help with measurements especially relating different instruments to measurements and use of instruments for measurements of everyday objects such as ruler and measuring tapes and heights of objects, scales with mass of different objects, etc. Pupil’s Comments I have to listen to what the teacher says and stop talking to Paul when the teacher talks. I am too shy to speak during class. When teacher ask me a question I know the answer but too shy to speak. I know I am weak in Geometry and using rulers and scales to measure. I only interested in numbers and how to add, subtract, multiply and divide numbers but nothing else in math. Parent Comments We are happy with how Pita has achieved so far this year. We know he has trouble expressing himself and he is easily distracted and not very attentive in class and we are trying to encourage him to speak out more. We also know he is weak in some parts of the math but Pita tells us he does not like those areas but we try to encourage him to do more work in those areas. We are trying to get someone to help him especially with those areas he does not like such as Geometry and Measurement. 220 Figures 7.5.2 shows a different example of reporting pupil’s achievements E to parents. Here the report is at the middle of the year for Katie, a Grade 4 pupil, in the key learning areas of Reading, Writing and Mathematics. This type of reporting not only provides information about the pupil but it also indicates to parents how well their child has met the curriculum outcomes in relation to predetermined standards or achievement levels (L0 to L4). Pupil Information Pupil Name: Katie Moon School Name: Quality PS Grade: 4 Name of Teacher: Papa Joe Areas reported: 1. Reading 2. Writing 3. Mathematics Date of report: 30 June 2005 Parent Name: Mere Moon Y g n i w o n K r u o ’ d li h C u s e R s s t l Key Learning Achievement Level Area L0 L1 L2 L3 L4 Reading Writing Mathematics The square box indicates the level achieved by the pupil in each of the three key learning areas of Reading, Writing and Mathematics. Figure 7.5.2 Key: L0 - Pupil has not demonstrated any evidence of the required knowledge and skills. L1 - Pupil has demonstrated some of the required knowledge and skills but in limited ways. Well below expected level of achievement at time of reporting. L2 - Pupil demonstrated good command of some of the required knowledge and skills at the expected level at time of reporting L3 - Pupil demonstrated most of the required knowledge and skills. Above the expected level at time of reporting. L4 - Pupil demonstrated the required knowledge and skills. Well above the expected level at time of reporting. 221 E Figure 7.5.3 shows another method of reporting on pupil’s progress by focusing on learning outcomes. For each key learning area or skill teachers need to clearly indicate all the learning outcomes pupils are expected to have achieved. As it is common for pupils to show achievements at different levels for different learning outcomes, teachers need to be familiar with what pupils are expected to achieve at each level (grade) in any learning outcome. Based on the results in Figure 7.5.3, the teacher could make the following about Lam’s achievement in Addition to be part of a report to parents and other stakeholders. Teacher’s comments Lam is showing outstanding addition skills in all of the four skill lines. He has achieved all of the learning outcomes expected at the end of Year 4 but has also achieved the learning outcomes for addition of whole numbers, decimals and fractions expected at the end of Year 5. He has also shown that he has achieved the learning outcome for decomposing numbers expected at the end of Year 4 but has also achieved the learning outcome for Years 5 and 6. 222 16 48; 00 d a n d a n g i t type h c e s i t ng n t 1 - d i g i t 6 f t h e o 100,0 a l p l a Grade m 2 - d i g i t s or 2-di s o 0 0 0 w e or a n d 2 5 ; 1 2 n a t o r n a t ator ers up t t regroupi a m i ith differe i in b 1 0 0 , s w m m 32; 5 m o t o 3 d e c i o m i t h ou i t h 6 . 1 Nu 6 . 2 up t w 6 . 3 up 6 . 4 w den and deno deno nda h i t o w a l i g i t 0 m d r 5 , 0 0 ng e 1 Grade i t h o u t a m inato b ers up t 00 10 u pi m t o c es i t h s 2 006… 5 . 1 Nu 10,0 5 . 2 up and w regro 5.3 up to 2 deci pla 5 . 4 w denom r … tcomes o i t h w Yea u t r a de 4 ng ng Ou G i t h o b ers up t 1 , 0 0 0 u pi m 3 4 . 1 Nu 1,000 4 . 2 up to and w regro o h Learni i t w … F i g u r e 7 . 5 . 3 ng i t h o u t 4 K Grade b ers up t u pi t o 1 0 0 … m d w … 3 . 1 Nu 100 3 . 2 up an regro o Progress Record – ‘Addition’ t ng r ade pi : G 2 ers up t ⅛ + b = c 100 Grade b g r o u v i n g m t o 50 bu re o r i a l c t vol ⅔ p e : 2 . 1 Nu 50 2 . 2 up no 2 . 4 pi in ⅓ 2 . 5 Ty a + up to … … … 1 g : 1 0 = b 20 m Grade b ers up m t o r i a l h o l e , ¼ La 1 . 1 Nu to 10 1 . 2 up to 1 . 4 pic involvin 1 w ½ 1 . 5 Type : a + up to … … e a m N A. Sub-Strand ‘Addition’ (Skill-lines) numbers statement 1. Decompose 2. Add whole 3. Add decimals 4. Add fractions 5. Complete 223 7.6 Helping those needing help Who needs help? Some of the key questions teachers often ask themselves are; who needs help? What specific help does each of my pupils need? The answer to these questions is not as straight forward as it seems. In a system that has an outcomes-based curriculum and where the focus on teaching and learning is on pupil’s achievement of the learning outcomes, it makes sense to use the learning outcomes as the basis for determining those needing help and what specific help each pupil needs. For a teacher to be able to help her pupils, she needs to be able to find out which of the pupils need extra help by first identifying those who have not fully achieved the learning outcomes. As the teachers’ purpose in teaching is to ensure that pupils fully achieve each of the learning outcomes, it would be true to say therefore that any pupil who has not fully achieved any of the learning outcomes needs help. In the earlier parts of this module we discussed what teachers need to do to find out who has ‘achieved’ or ‘not achieved’ any of the learning outcomes. First, teachers need to be able to identify all the learning outcomes pupils are expected to achieve from the objectives (unpacking objectives). Teachers then need to develop instruments that they would use to collect information that would enable them to identify the extent to which each of the pupils has achieved the learning outcomes, that is, pupil’s achievement level. For teachers to be able to decide who has ‘achieved’ and who has ‘not achieved’ or who ‘needs help’, they need to be able to develop achievement levels that are relevant to each of the learning outcomes. This has been covered in sufficient details in the earlier parts of this module. The question of who needs help is a crucial one in as far as teaching is concerned. However teachers in many countries in the region tend to focus teaching more on the requirements of the various assessments that are in place in their respective countries than on the needs of the pupil. This has often resulted in teachers not making serious effort to find out the pupils that need help. As to the question of who needs help, one can say that any pupil who has not fully achieved the learning outcome being addressed needs help. But as discussed in the earlier parts of the module, pupils’ achievement in a class can all be fitted into an achievement continuum ranging from the lowest achievement level expected (0% proficiency) to the highest level expected (100% proficiency). So any pupil who has not achieved the highest level of achievement expect for any learning outcome is said to need help although 224 those achieving close to the lowest level needs more help than those achieving close to the highest level expected. Figure 7.6.1 gives a simple strategy that teachers may adopt in trying to identify those needing help. Curriculum Objective(s) to be Monitored Identify Learning Outcome(s) to be monitored Design Design parallel appropriate pupil pupil activities & activities & assessment assessment Proceed to next outcome(s) Administer Administer parallel activity & assessment activity (during/after & assessment corrective (during/after instructions teaching) Carry out corrective instructions No Yes Learning Outcome achieved? All learning outcomes achieved Achieved outcomes Figure 7.6.1: A proposed strategy for monitoring pupil achievements in learning outcomes in a course in the classroom situation 225 Consider the examples given in Figures 7.3.3. and 7.3.4 on Lam’s achievements in ‘Grammar’ in Language and ‘Addition’ in Mathematics at the end of Year 4. As indicated in the records, it is clear that Lam does not need help in addition as he has ‘fully achieved all that he is expected to achieve in addition at the end of Year 4. Based on the evidence Lam has shown, he is achieving well above the level expected in all aspects of ‘Addition’ by the end of Year 4. However based on the evidence he has provided it appears that Lam needs help in various areas of Grammar. For the area of Grammar Lam has shown that he needs help in; identifying parts, verb tenses, use of adjectives and sentence completion. The information provided through the pupil’s achievements in the learning outcomes takes us to the first step in trying to help pupils improve their learning. Having identified those who needs help is only the beginning of the process. It is one thing to be able to identify those who needs help but it is totally another to determine what help each pupil needs. As seen from Figure 7.3.3 Lam needs help in several areas of Grammar but it would not be effective to then devise a one strategy fits all for those who needs help. This is because different pupils need different kinds of help. Even a pupil needs different kinds of help in different aspects of a learning outcome. As seen from Lam’s performance in Grammar, he needs the most help in the use of adjectives and the least help in identifying parts. So a teacher needs to strategically devise a strategy for helping pupils, and that is not an easy task. What help do pupils need? In the earlier section we looked at how to identify pupils that need help by monitoring their achievements in the learning outcomes. We have also seen in the case of Lam that even within a specified area of learning a pupil will need different kinds of help depending on their achievements in the various learning outcomes. The question of what help do pupils need should be carefully considered. We have also discussed in this module the role that feed-back can play in making pupils aware of their weaknesses and where they need to put more effort in order for them to achieve the learning outcomes. The question of what help do pupils need is the most crucial question teachers need to be able to answer if they are to improve the effectiveness of their teaching by helping pupils improve their learning. While monitoring the achievements of pupils allow teachers to identify the specific weaknesses of each pupil, it also provides the opportunity for them devise a strategy for helping pupils. In Chapter 6 we saw how pupils’ progress in the various learning outcomes could be monitored by developing appropriate achievement levels that are closely linked to the learning outcomes. These achievement levels then form the basis for monitoring pupil’s progress. It also provides the basis for developing a strategy for helping those who have not ‘fully achieved’ the learning outcome(s). 226 Monitoring pupil’s progress in any learning outcome using carefully developed achievement levels that cover the whole continuum provides the platform for teachers to devise specific strategies for helping pupils. It is a reality in most classroom situations that many of the pupils will not ‘fully achieve’ the learning outcomes the teacher intends to teach. It is also a reality that of those who do not achieve the learning outcomes will show different levels of achievements some achieving at the lowest level while others achieving at higher levels further up the continuum. Take for example the situation outlined in Figures 7.6.2. and 7.6.3. Figure E 7.6.2 shows the achievement levels a teacher has developed to monitor her pupils’ achievement in problem solving in a mathematics course for Grade 4. Figure 7.6.3 shows the actual achievement of her pupils at the end of the lesson. Learning Level 5 Level 4 Level 3 Level 2 Level 1 Level 0 Outcome Solve simple Solve simple Solve Solve Solve Cannot word problems simple simple simple solve Solve simple problems involving word word word simple problems involving +, single problems problems problems problems involving -, ÷, x and operations involving involving + involving involving +, -, x, ÷ & combination of +, _, x, +, -, and and - only. + or - any of the combinations of + and – and ÷ and a either x only. operations. with either combination or ÷ only, x or ÷. of + and - Figure 7.6.2: Achievement levels for monitoring Grade 4 achievements in ‘Problem Solving’ using operations. Achievements in Problem Solving at end of Grade 4 20 18 15 16 i l s 14 12 12 f Pup 10 r o 8 e 8 b 6 6 m 6 u N 3 4 2 0 L5 L4 L3 L2 L1 L0 Achievement Level Figure 7.6.3. Actual Achievement of ‘Ocean Primary School’ on Solving simple problems involving operations. 227 As seen from Figure 7.6.3 only a small number (3) of the fifty pupils in the class actually ‘fully achieved’ the learning outcome while most are achieving at lower levels. In most cases teachers would note the pupils’ achievements and move on. While providing this information to pupils as feedback may help, that would not solve the problem. However if teachers really want to improve the effectiveness of their teaching, and help their pupils improve, they need to do something about those achieving at L4 or below as they need help if they are to be able to solve simple problems using the various operations. The information provided in Figure 7.6.2 provides the guidelines teachers need in order to design the kind of intervention that pupils need. From experience teachers should be able to develop the achievement levels for a learning outcome as part of her planning for teaching. This means that teachers should also be able to use the achievement levels to prepare a strategy for helping her pupils who have not fully achieved the learning outcome, that is, those achieving at Level 4 or lower. Several situations exist for the teacher to address. Situation 1: Those whose achievements are similar to that expected of L0, that is, those who cannot solve simple problems involving any of the operations. A possible strategy for the teacher is to prepare a parallel version of the whole lesson together with the assessment as those in this level are those who have not shown any of what is asked for in the learning outcome. A parallel lesson is one targeting the same skills in the same learning outcome but using different content or context. This ensures that the 6 pupils at level 0 don’t get bored of being taught the same content again. Situation 2: Those who show that they can only solve simple problems involving either + or -, that is, Level 1. Knowing what the 15 pupils at this level are able to do, the teacher is in a position to prepare interventions and assessments that focus on what is required for Level 2 to Level 5. Situation 3: Those who show that they are able to solve simple word problems involving +, -, and either x or ÷, that is, Level 2. In preparing interventions for those in this group, at least the teacher do not have to include those areas that pupils are able to do and focus on those yet to be achieved. The teacher may wish to differentiate between those who are able to solve problems involving x from those involving ÷ so that separate interventions and assessments can be prepared. Situation 4; Those who are able to solve simple problems involving single operations of +, -, x, and ÷ and a combination of + and -, that is, Level 3. 228 For those at this level, the teacher can only focus on interventions and assessment that target problems involving combinations of + and – with either x or ÷. Situation 5; Those who are able to solve simple problems involving single operations of +, _, x, and ÷ and a combination of + and -, that is, Level 4. For those at this level of achievements, the only aspect they have yet to achieve is solving problems involving combinations of + and – with both x and ÷. The teacher’s interventions and assessment therefore should focus only on this aspect of the learning outcome. How would the teacher organize the class? As a teacher you may wonder on how to handle a class with all these different situations. A classroom facing these situations calls for initiative on the part of the teacher. One such initiative is to organize the class into groups based on their achievements. This means that the teacher may wish to organize the class into four or five groups based on the various situations. The teacher may wish to organize those who have fully achieved the learning outcome the first time into one group and those in Level 0 and Level 1 into one group and those in Levels 2, 3 and 4 into one group each, a total of five groups as follows; Group 1: L0 and L1 Group 2: Level 2 Group 3: Level 3 Group 4: Level 4 Group 5: Level 5 For each group, the intervention strategy outlined above could then be used except for those in Group 5 who have fully achieved the learning outcome the first time. For those in group 5, the teacher has a choice of allowing these pupils to proceed to the learning outcomes at the next grade but in the same skill lines. Alternatively the teacher may allow the pupils in the group to proceed to the additional aspects of the learning outcome in the skills ladder. These arrangements allow for pupils in a class to be grouped into different ability groups according to their achievements in the numerous learning outcomes. This avoids pupils being in the same group throughout but allowing for pupils to move from one group to another depending on their achievements. An alternative strategy would see those in group 5 helping out as mentors for those in groups 3 and 4 thus allowing the teacher to focus on the rest. The down side of this is that those in group 5 would be deprived of the opportunity to move ahead either along the skills line or the skills ladder. 229 The strategy outlined in the example above could be used by teachers of any subject in trying to help their pupils, especially those who are struggling to achieve the learning outcomes, improve their learning. While a one on one strategy between the teacher and each pupil would be ideal, it is unlikely that teachers would be able to cope especially in situations with large class sizes. Providing a strategy for helping pupils especially those needing help is a crucial part of planning a lesson and teachers should consider it as mandatory if they are to improve the effectiveness of their teaching. The long hours teachers spend trying to help pupils would have very little impact on pupils’ learning if they do not provide the help they need. Achieving the various learning outcomes is the target of teachers and therefore they should take every measure to ensure that their pupils have a chance of achieving the learning outcomes. It is only then that teachers can be sure that their teaching has been effective and not on the hours they spend trying to teach. 230 Summary Throughout this module, “Are our pupils learning? How do we know?” the focus has been on how teachers can take advantage of the opportunities in the classroom, and the information available, to improve their teaching and hence their pupils’ learning. To achieve this, teachers must first ensure that the environment where the learning takes place is conducive for teachers so they are better able to teach their pupils so they acquire the knowledge and skills expected. Pupils also need to know where they are in relation to what is expected of them. It is therefore the role of the teacher to make sure that pupils are aware of where they stand. While teachers are expected to do so much with so little, the reality is that most teachers today need to be in a position where they are able to help their pupils achieve what is expected of them. To achieve this teachers not only need to have the necessary qualifications but also the competency so they can provide the appropriate help to their pupils. Unless teachers know their students well and are knowledgeable about their achievements, they cannot be confident that their teaching meets the learning needs of their students. With the increasing complexity in our communities much more are expected of our children and teachers need to be in a position to guide pupils in their learning so they possess the basic skills they need to become useful members of their community. Literacy and numeracy are key basic life skills that every pupil needs as it not only open doors and opportunities, but are necessary if pupils are to be successful in further studies in other areas. But with the limited resources available, the education authorities in many of our countries in the Pacific are under pressure to ensure that teachers possess the appropriate academic qualifications to become a “qualified teacher” as well as the competency to become a “competent teacher”. It is our hope that this module; “Are our pupils Learning? How do we know?” will help you who are currently teaching improve the way you teach and hence have positive impact on the learning of your pupils. We are also hopeful that teacher training institutions throughout the region will see a need to incorporate some if not all of the issues covered in the module into their teacher training curriculum so that student teachers will be in a position to acquire the relevant and appropriate skills that they are expected to possess once they are in the classroom. We are hopeful that the content of this module would become part of the teacher in-service training programme of every country in the region as they endeavour to improve the competency and effectiveness of their teachers and hence the overall quality of the education they provide to their pupils and those pupils will benefit from such programmes. 231 Glossary of Terms Glossary of Terms Ability The present or potential capacity of a pupil to perform a task or to use skills, including ones that are intellectual and physical. Achievement A particular level in the development of a pupil towards Level a learning outcome; where the top level is the learning outcome. Accountability The responsibility for implementing a process or procedure, for justifying decisions made, and for results or outcomes produced. Teachers are often said to be accountable for their students' learning in the assigned subject area, within the limits of the students' abilities and the time and resources available. Accuracy The degree to which the data and information collected about the performance of a pupil are precise and correct measures of performance are free from error. Affective The range of feelings and emotions including interests, Domain attitudes, motivations, values, and appreciations. Aggregating The combining of two or more related scores into one total score. Assessment The process of collecting evidence and making a judgement about student achievements. Attainment Similar to an achievement level but used to describe the Level level at the end of the learning process Authentic An assessment approach that has been designed to Assessment provide a realistic task, simulation, or problem related to that attribute or performance being measured. Behaviour The actions of the pupil, teacher or others, that are specific and observable. Benchmark A referenced behaviour for comparing observed performance of pupils or teachers at a given level. 232 An instrument that specifies criteria or indicators of merit on which the assessor or evaluator marks the Checklist presence or absence of the attributes or teaching behaviours being assessed. Class-centred A description which focuses on a class of pupils rather than on an individual pupil. Competency Similar to an achievement level, but usually refers to a Level stage in development towards command of a practical skill. Cognitive The range of knowledge and knowledge-related skills Domain needed for learners to achieve different types of instructional objectives. These range from perception to knowledge of facts and acquisition of skills to higher- order inference Comparability The similarity of phenomena (e.g., attributes, performances, assessments, data sources) being examined. The amount or degree of comparability is often used to determine the appropriateness of using one phenomenon in lieu of another and to help ensure fairness. Competence A teacher's repertoire of competencies. Competency A knowledge, skill, ability, personal quality, experience, (Teaching) or other characteristic that is applicable to the profession of teaching. Context The environment within which the teacher works. This (Teaching) includes, but is not limited to, physical facilities and setting, types of students, school and community characteristics, resource availability (staff, materials, equipment, funding, time), classroom climate, school climate, degree of support provided by others, and demands made on the teacher. Course The book that presents the syllabus for a particular document subject, highlighting the objectives of the course, in terms of knowledge and other skills. Diagnosis The process of determining a pupils strengths and weaknesses, based on the results of the assessments used in the evaluation. Diagnosis is an essential preliminary to preparing interventions for a pupil or a plan of assistance in cases where remediation is needed. 233 Effective Those teaching practices that lead to desirable results Teaching such as pupil learning as measured by standardized tests. Error of The difference between a teacher's obtained score and Measurement his/her true score on an assessment that is due to factors beyond the control of that teacher, including lack of reliability in the assessment instrument or process, variability of settings of the assessment, limited sampling of pupil performance, bias of the assessment , rater effects, and interactions among such factors. Exemplar An example of work that demonstrates a particular level of achievement by a pupil. Evaluation The systematic process of determining the merit, value, and worth of someone (the evaluee, such as a pupil) or something (the evaluand, such as a product, program, policy, procedure, or process). Evidence The documentation and verbal statements by credible witnesses (e.g., pupils, peers, teacher, principal) concerning the knowledge, skills, abilities, and behaviours of a pupil. Evidence is used both to generate and to justify judgments about a pupil's performance for purposes of evaluation. Excellence A quality or state of high or superior performance, or of having virtues and values surpassing most others. Expectation The anticipated performance of a pupil. The performance of a pupil can be affected by the expectations that the teacher has for the pupil being assessed. If the teacher has high expectations for the pupil being assessed, there is an increased likelihood of the pupil performing at a higher level than he/she might otherwise; holding low expectations for a pupil can reduce performance levels. Sometimes the opposite impact can occur. Too high expectations can undermine a pupil's confidence, while too low expectations can impel the pupil to strive for greater performance. Feedback Information that a teacher receives from a pupil, or advisory information a pupil receives from a teacher, based upon pupil work and previous communication between the two. Feed-forward Steps taken by the teacher to prepare pupils for course skills yet to be taught. 234 Formative An evaluation conducted primarily for the purpose of Evaluation improving the pupil through identifying the pupil's strengths and weaknesses. Judgment An appraisal, decision, or opinion about the performance level of a pupil with respect to the knowledge, skill, ability, behaviour, or attribute being assessed. Learning A description of what a pupil knows, or what a pupil outcome can do, when an objective has been met. The products of instruction or exposure to new knowledge or skills. Examples include the mastery of a new skill or successful completion of teaching resulting in pupils acquiring the knowledge or skill. Objective A description of what a pupil is aiming for in terms of either knowledge or skill. The pre-specified intended outcomes of a program, process, or policy. In the case of education, these are usually in the form of learning and behavioural objectives for pupils Objectives tend to be more specific than goals. Prescription Those parts of a course document that describe how the course is to be assessed. Professionalism A reform movement to promote teaching as a profession (Teacher) with its own knowledge base, licensure structure, standards for practice, and professional functions. Proficiency Sufficient expertise in a knowledge area or adequate mastery of a skill with regard to a standard. Profile A representation of a pupil's performance on a number of attributes, measures, or dimensions that use the same scale. Progress Record A format for recording the progress of a pupil towards a particular learning outcome or set of learning outcomes. The record shows the levels of achievement for the learning outcome. Pupil-centred A description that focuses on a particular pupil rather than on a group of pupils. Qualifier A condition attached to a course objective which defines the scope of the objective. Record of A format for recording the success of a pupil in meeting Achievement learning outcomes and course objectives. 235 Relevance The extent to which the domains and indicators covered (Domain) by a pupil assessment system apply to a pupil's learning in terms of both importance and expectations. Resources All those materials that support teachers and pupils in their learning through engagement with a particular course. Strand A sequence of learning outcomes from one year to the next which represents the development of one particular part of a course. Summative An assessment conducted at the end of teaching Assessment primarily for the purpose of making personnel decisions about the pupil. Syllabus The portion of a course document that lists the topics and skills to be taught and learnt. Teacher The attribute of a teacher who has the capability or Effectiveness potential of having a positive impact on student learning, behaviour, and attitudes. Unpack The process of looking inside course objectives in order to identify the learning outcomes; also the process of identifying the various simple actions inside the complex verb of an objective. . 236 Document Outline
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