July 2005
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Better Learning, Better Future: Education and Training Sector Strategy
Artworks in this book are illustrated by children of Port Moresby
Cover Page:
Helen Ava, 8
Chapters:
1
Francis Vincent, 8
2
Toby Titus, 6
3
Frank Eme, 12
4 Edward Parker, 14
5
Priscilla Alphonse (NGO Six Mile)
6
Tom Loka, 15
© 2005 Asian Development Bank
All rights reserved. Published 2005.
Printed in the Philippines.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Available.
Publication Stock No. 051105
ISBN: 971-561-583-X
The views expressed in this paper are those of the author and do not necessarily
reflect the view or policies of the Asian Development Bank or its Board of
Governors or the governments they represent.
The Asian Development Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data
included in this publication and accepts no responsibility for any consequence
of their use.
Use of the term “country” does not imply any judgment by the authors or the
Asian Development Bank as to the legal or other status of any territorial entity.
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Contents
Acknowledgments
This paper was prepared by Kowsar P. Chowdhury of the Pacific
Department of the Asian Development Bank (ADB) under the overall
guidance and direction of Robert Y. Siy, Jr., Peter N. King, and Indu
Bhushan. Adriaan Verspoor provided valuable assistance with the final
draft. Grace Mak was involved at an earlier stage. The paper draws on
extensive analytical work done both within and outside ADB.
We gratefully acknowledge the many thoughtful discussions with
various public and private agencies and individuals from Pacific
developing member countries. These included government officials,
public and private schools and colleges, nongovernment
organizations, and church groups in the Cook Islands, Federated States
of Micronesia, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands,
Tuvalu, and Vanuatu. The important information and deep insights
we gained from them, together with their thoughtful comments on
the final draft, have proven invaluable.
We thank our development partners for their extensive
comments and the information they generously provided, especially
the Australian Agency for International Development and the New
Zealand Agency for International Development, as well as those
working with the Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat and the Pacific
Regional Initiatives for the Delivery of Basic Education.
Constructive feedback from colleagues in ADB was very useful
and helped shape the paper during its final stages of preparation.
Special thanks go to Judy Goldman for editing and editorial advice;
Ophie Iriberri for proofreading; Anna Melissa Dayrit for preparing
annexes, graphs, and references; Cecile Sarfati for web posting, and
Gladdys Santos-Nave for overall administrative assistance.
Finally, we thank the Office of External Relations at ADB for
making the artwork from If I Had the Chance: Artwork from the Streets
of Asia and the Pacific
available for this publication. We are especially
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Better Learning, Better Future: Education and Training Sector Strategy
grateful to the child artists from Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea
whose artworks appear on these pages. We are happy that these
children have another chance to share their dreams with those who
can help ensure those dreams are realized.
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Contents
Foreword
Progress in education has been remarkable in almost all
countries of the Pacific in the last few decades, yet daunting challenges
remain. While there has been tremendous success in ensuring access
to basic education, the results have not been equally distributed within
and across countries. Wide variations exist in Melanesia, Micronesia,
and Polynesia. Even in countries where access to basic education is
no longer an issue, quality and equity remain dominant policy
concerns. Many students do not acquire the learning skills they need
as productive adults in an increasingly competitive world. Children
of poor parents, especially those living in rural areas, often remain
deprived of an equal opportunity to learn and thus of the prospect of
a better future.
Basic education remains a necessary first step in this process.
Countries also need to build on this foundation to provide
opportunities for further education and training to youth and adults
who have already entered the workforce. This strategy paper suggests
actions that can help countries in the region to address these
challenges and describes the supporting role the Asian Development
Bank (ADB) can play in working with governments and other partners.
It presents an operational framework for ADB’s overall education
strategy for the next five years, based on advice from government
officials and colleagues in partner agencies. It is hoped the strategy
will provide the basis for discussions among governments, church
groups, nongovernment organizations, civil societies, regional
organizations, and development partners so as to achieve a shared
understanding of the nature of educational challenges and future roles
for ADB and others.
ADB is deeply committed to supporting educational development
through policy advice, technical assistance, and lending operations in
partnership with other agencies wherever possible. In implementing
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Better Learning, Better Future: Education and Training Sector Strategy
this strategy, ADB intends to actively explore and promote
opportunities to collaborate with regional institutions. Government
leadership is, of course, essential for developing a coherent framework
for sector development and harmonization of donor procedures and
thereby improving the effectiveness of external support to education.
PHILIP ERQUIGA
Director General
Pacific Department
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Contents
Contents
Acknowledgments
iii
Foreword
v
Abbreviations
xi
Executive Summary
xiii
Chapter 1: Introduction
1
Background
1
Purpose and Process of the Strategy Paper
5
Chapter 2: Regional Context: Economic Performance
and Challenges
8
Economic Growth and Poverty
8
Development Constraints
11
Chapter 3: Achievements and Challenges in Education
and Training
14
Access
15
Quality
18
Internal Efficiency
23
Equity
25
Planning, Management, and Institutional Capacity
27
Financing Education
29
The Challenge of Education Development in
Pacific Developing Member Countries
34
Chapter 4: External Assistance to Education
36
ADB’s Assistance to Education
36
Education Activities of Other Funding Agencies
38
Public/Private Partnerships
40
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Better Learning, Better Future: Education and Training Sector Strategy
Chapter 5: Future Directions for Pacific Education
and Training
42
Confronting the Challenge of Equitable Access
and Quality
43
Transforming Resources into Results
46
Strengthen Capacity to Manage and
Deliver the Education Service
48
Improving Relevance and Responsiveness
of Sector Development Processes
53
Chapter 6 Conclusion: The Asian Development
Bank’s Pacific Education and Training Sector Strategy

55
The Asian Development Bank’s
Contribution to Education in the Pacific
55
Supporting Education Outcomes for the Poor
56
Strategic Focus
57
Implementing the Strategy
62
Partnership Arrangements
66
Internal Resource Requirements
67
Risks and Monitoring
68
Appendixes
1. Economic and Social Indicators
70
2. Enrollment and Literacy Rate
72
3. Education Expenditure
75
4. External Assistance to Education
77
5. Proposed ADB Education and Training Sector
Activities, 2005–2007
84
6. Sector-Wide Approaches
85
7. The Association for the Development
of Education in Africa
87
References
89
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Contents
List of Boxes
Box 1
Millennium Development Goals on Education
2
Box 2
Education and Poverty Reduction
3
BOX 3
Samoa: Addressing Access and Quality
43
Box 4
Strategic Priorities for Education Development that
Pacific Developing Member Countries May Want to
Consider of Students from the Three Schools at Malifa
45
Box 5
Restructuring the Education System in Papua New Guinea
49
Box 6
Information and Communication Technology
and Improved Education Outcomes
52
Box 7
Features of the Sector-Wide Approach
54
Box 8
Education and Training Sector Strategy for
Pacific Developing Member Countries 2005–2009
58
List of Tables
Table 1
Cook Islands, Performance of Grade 4 Students
on the Pacific Islands Literacy Level Tests
26
Table 2
ADB Lending and Technical Assistance
Program 2005–2007
64
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Better Learning, Better Future: Education and Training Sector Strategy
Figures
Figure 1
Percentage of Children Who Never
Enroll and Who Drop Out by Grade 5 in Selected
Pacific Developing Member Countries
24
Figure 2
Primary and Secondary Gross Enrollment Rates by
Gross National Income Per Capita in Selected PDMCs
32
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Contents
Abbreviations
ADB
Asian Development Bank
ADEA
Association for the Development of Education in
Africa
AusAID
Australian Agency for International Development
EFA
education for all
EU
European Union
FBEAP
Forum Basic Education Action Plan
FSM
Federated States of Micronesia
GDP
gross domestic product
GER
gross enrollment rate
GNI
gross national income
ICT
information and communication technology
MDG
Millennium Development Goal
NER
net enrollment rate
NGO
nongovernment organization
NZAID
New Zealand Agency for International Development
PARD
Pacific Department
PDMC
Pacific developing member country of ADB
PIFS
Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat
PNG
Papua New Guinea
PRIDE
Pacific Regional Initiatives for the Delivery of Basic
Education
RMI
Republic of the Marshall Islands
TVET
technical and vocational education and training
SPBEA
South Pacific Board of Educational Assessment
STR
student teacher ratio
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SWAp
sector-wide approach
UN
United Nations
UNDP
United Nations Development Programme
UNESCO
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization
UNICEF
United Nations Children’s Fund
US
United States
USP
University of the South Pacific
Note: In this report, “$” refers to US dollars.
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Executive Summary
The Education and Training Sector Strategy for the Pacific provides
a framework for Asian Development Bank (ADB) support to education
development in its 14 Pacific developing member countries (PDMC).
It reviews the implications of thePacific Strategy (2005-2009):
Responding to the Priorities of the Poor” for the education sector and
proposes to sharpen the focus and enhance the effectiveness of ADB
support to education in the region.
PDMCs have come a long way in their education development.
Most are close to achieving universal primary education and universal
literacy. Access to secondary education has increased remarkably in
several countries. Many countries eliminated gender disparities at the
primary level, and the gap is narrowing at the secondary level. PDMC
governments have consistently sought improvements in their
education systems. There is strong regional collaboration through
meetings of the Pacific Islands Forum Ministers of Education.
Yet, achievements are uneven. In the larger Melanesian countries,
issues of access still loom large. They, as well as several Micronesian
countries, also need to address problems of dropping out and of
retention. All PDMCs are deeply concerned about the low quality of
instruction and learning outcomes in many of their schools. Important
and urgent questions are being asked about strategies for skills
development at secondary and tertiary levels that can help support
policy to further private sector development and to spur economic
growth.
When the quality of education is substandard, the poor are
affected more. Hence, the poor should be the primary focus of
education policy and public action. Their children should have an equal
opportunity to complete the basic education cycle with mastery of the
curriculum. It is not surprising that where education is of poor quality,
expensive, and far from home, demand is low. Access to high quality
basic education will go a long way toward resolving demand problems
and disengagement from education among disadvantaged groups.
But even a high-quality basic education will not suffice to support
national development aspirations, especially not in middle-income
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Better Learning, Better Future: Education and Training Sector Strategy
countries. Students who complete basic education seek opportunities
for further learning and skills development. Many will want to continue
their general education in upper secondary schools. Others want to
enter skills development programs. All should be ready to pursue their
education throughout their working lives and beyond. Providing these
opportunities in a way that is financially sustainable and responsive
to national development needs and to personal aspirations is a goal of
education policy that few countries will be able to ignore.
Policy reform is often at the heart of education development.
Where governments have implemented the right policies, performance
is better. Where strong institutions support these policies, progress will
be continuous. Where resources are allocated efficiently and used
effectively, the results can be sustained. Designing and implementing
an appropriate national sector policy framework and investment
program, monitoring progress toward development objectives, and
evaluating the lessons of experience are essential elements of successful
education development. Small countries with few education specialists
often find this difficult to accomplish. PDMCs are fortunate that they
can call on significant support from development partners as they
tackle this task.
Effective education service delivery requires policies that ensure
that resources are used efficiently and are deployed equitably. This is
especially important in those PDMCs where high levels of expenditure
have not resulted in improved student performance. Progress in
education development will depend on the implementation of policies
that:

confront the challenges of equitable access and quality;

transform resources into results;

strengthen capacity to manage and deliver the education
service;

improve relevance and responsiveness of sector development
processes.
ADB is committed to supporting PDMCs in their efforts to improve
the supply of and demand for high quality education services. ADB
recognizes that it is only one of several development agencies that
actively support education development in the Pacific region, that its
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Executive Summary
financial contribution is modest, and that its lending terms are not
particularly attractive for a number of PDMCs. At the same time PDMCs
and other partners recognize that ADB can bring valuable contributions
to education development as an independent agency with a strong
economic and social policy focus, broad experiences throughout Asia,
and a capacity to tap experience from other regions.
Lending levels, therefore, may not be the appropriate yardstick
for measuring ADB performance in the education sector. Instead, the
results of ADB’s work in the education sector should be assessed by
the extent to which it has been able to (i) help PDMCs deal more
effectively with key policy challenges of education development, and
(ii) contribute to improvements in the effectiveness of external support.
The overall goal of this strategy is to improve learning outcomes
for the poor and disadvantaged in the Pacific. ADB support is expected
to result in enhancing the supply of and demand for equity, quality,
and relevance of education services. To realize these outcomes, it has
three interlinked strategic objectives: (i) education strategies that are
relevant and responsive to national development objectives and client
needs; (ii) demonstrably more effective public, private, and
development partner resource allocations for basic education; and (iii)
enhanced capacity of the PDMC to manage and deliver a quality basic
education service.
The strategic objectives of ADB assistance to education and
training in the Pacific are closely related and mutually reinforcing in
support of increased national capacity to use resources effectively and
to deliver a high quality education that responds to national needs and
objectives. The implementation will be country specific through sector
work, dialogue, and program design. Until recently, ADB support to
the education sector has often been opportunistic rather than strategic.
There have been few follow-up investments, even though completion
reports emphasize the need for long-term involvement. Four countries
(Papua New Guinea (PNG), Solomon Islands, Fiji Islands, and Timor-
Leste) comprise more than 90% of the population of the PDMCs. Three
of these (PNG, Solomon Islands, and Timor-Leste) are off-track for the
education Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). ADB has not been
active in the education sector in Timor-Leste and Fiji Islands and has
only had a single technical assistance operation (for nonformal
vocational education and training in 2003) in the Solomon Islands.
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Better Learning, Better Future: Education and Training Sector Strategy
There is thus a strong case to strengthen the strategic focus of the
education program by:

concentrating ADB support on basic education and skills
development;

planning a sustained involvement in selected countries
through a long-term program of lending and technical
assistance support and follow-up operations;

increasing engagement with the larger countries that are off-
track for the education MDGs;

providing technical assistance to enhance the capacity for
analysis of education financial management to countries
where improvements in the efficiency of resource allocation
is the dominant priority.
ADB will also intensify its support for regional studies on key issues in
education development in the Pacific, particularly for:

a review of skills development issues, including an assessment
of the experience with different strategies to date, a summary
of international experience, and a framework for investment
in skills development in the Pacific;

investigating key areas of concern in basic education,
particularly those relating to the prevalence, nature and
causes of educational disadvantages.
The agenda in this strategy paper is ambitious and presents a
significant increase in ADB involvement in the Pacific education sector.
Even if a significant increase in ADB administrative budgets were
possible, it would allow only very selective implementation of that
agenda. To implement the proposed strategic agenda with broader
country coverage, ADB’s Pacific Department (PARD) intends to explore
possibilities to collaborate more closely with regional organizations
and to reduce the transaction costs of its support.
How far and how fast ADB can move in this direction will depend
on the readiness of each country to implement the strategies to achieve
the desired outcomes. Another important factor is the commitment of
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Executive Summary
the regional institutions and external funding agencies to work together
to achieve the best possible education outcomes for each PDMC. ADB
will explore with the Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat and the Pacific
Regional Initiatives for the Delivery of Basic Education (PRIDE) the
needs for additional support especially in countries where ADB and
other partner agencies want to move to sector programs. ADB will also
review with the Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat, PRIDE, PDMCs, and
partner agencies the need to intensify and expand PRIDE activities and
ways to do so. This will require the readiness of the most important
development agencies active in education in the Pacific to take concrete
steps to further develop the framework for cooperation and policy
dialogue between agencies and senior policy makers in the region that
currently function as part of the Pacific Islands Forum.
Implementing the Pacific education and training sector strategy
proposed in this paper will be possible only on a very limited scale
with only one education specialist in PARD. A high priority is to assign
other staff to complement the work of the education specialist and
strengthen ADB’s capacity to contribute to the improvement of
education resource allocation policies in the region.
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Introduction
Chapter 1
Introduction
Background
The education and training sector strategy proposed in this paper
provides a framework for Asian Development Bank (ADB)
support to education development in its 14 Pacific developing
member countries (PDMCs).1 It supports ADB’s overarching
development objective of poverty reduction (ADB 1999a) and is
grounded in ADB’s overall education strategy (ADB 2003b) and in its
third A Pacific Strategy for the Asian Development Bank 2005-2009:
Responding to the Priorities of the Poor (ADB 2004f). It thus reflects
ADB’s overarching vision for education: “All children and adults in the
Asia and Pacific region will have equitable access to and complete
education of sufficient quality to empower them to break out of the
poverty cycle, to improve their quality of life, and to participate
effectively in national development (ADB 2003b).” ADB support for
educational development emphasizes increasing equity and access,
improving quality, strengthening management, mobilizing resources,
improving partnerships, and applying new and innovative technologies
especially information and communication technology (ICT). It also
supports innovative programs in literacy and nonformal education and
in early childhood development with emphasis on low-cost,
1
The Pacific developing member countries are: Cook Islands, Fiji Islands, Kiribati, Republic of the
Marshall Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Nauru, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon
Islands, Timor-Leste, Tonga, Tuvalu, and Vanuatu.
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Better Learning, Better Future: Education and Training Sector Strategy
community-based provision. ADB is committed to helping developing
member countries achieve the Millennium Development Goals
(MDGs) by 2015 and supports the global movement to achieve
Education for All (EFA) (See Box 1).
The ADB poverty reduction strategy encompasses three pillars:
(i) pro-poor, sustainable economic growth; (ii) inclusive social
development; and (iii) good governance. Education helps to lay the
foundation for all three pillars of poverty reduction as it is closely
linked to human, economic, and social dimensions of development.
Box 1
Millennium Development Goals on Education
TARGETS
INDICATORS
Universal Primary Education
Ensure that, by 2015, children
• net enrollment ratio in primary
everywhere, boys and girls alike,
education
will be able to complete a full
• proportion of pupils starting
course of primary schooling.
grade 1 who reach grade 5
• literacy rate of 15- to
24-year-olds
Promote Gender Equality
and Empower Women

Eliminate gender disparity in
• ratio of girls to boys in primary,
primary and secondary education,
secondary, and tertiary
preferably by 2005, and in all
education
levels of education no later
• ratio of literate women to men
than 2015.
of 15- to 24-year-olds
• share of women in wage
employment in the
nonagricultural sector
• proportion of seats held by
women in national parliament
Source: United Nations Millennium Development Goals
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Introduction
(See Box 2). Basic education2 is the key. It is not only a human right; it
helps reduce fertility and improve health and nutrition of children.
Most importantly, it is an essential part of any pro-poor development
strategy. It helps to lift people out of poverty, creates opportunities for
social mobility, and reduces economic and social disparities. An
educated population is an essential element of an economic and
regulatory environment that is conducive to private sector initiatives.
It is a precondition for meaningful participation in a world economy
where competitive advantage is increasingly technology based and
knowledge driven. Evidence on the social and economic returns on
Box 2
Education and Poverty Reduction
The relationship between education and poverty reduction is very clear:
educated people have higher income earning potential and are better able to
improve the quality of their lives. Persons with at least a basic education are more
likely to avail of a range of social services and to participate more actively in local
and national government through voting and community involvement. They are
less likely to be marginalized within the larger society. Education empowers. It
helps people become more proactive, gain control over their lives, and widen the
range of available choices. In fact, the opposite of marginalization is empowerment,
and basic education is one of the keys to empowerment, both for individuals and
groups. The combination of increased earning ability, political and social
empowerment, and enhanced capacity to participate in community governance
is a powerful instrument for breaking the poverty cycle. In fact, education is the
primary vehicle by which economically and socially marginalized adults and children
can lift themselves out of poverty and obtain the means to participate fully in
their communities.
Source: ADB 2003b.
2
ADB defines basic education as education provided for children between the ages of 6 and 14,
usually equivalent to primary and lower secondary, or nine years of schooling. This is considered the
minimum for a person to improve his/her quality of life and to participate in national development.
(ADB 2003b). Some organizations define basic education as up to 10 years of schooling, and include
non-formal and skills development.
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Better Learning, Better Future: Education and Training Sector Strategy
investments in education is abundant.3 It suggests that returns on basic
education are high, most notably in low-income countries and
especially for girls.
Education development strategies cannot, however, be limited
to basic education. They will need to incorporate policies and
investment programs that provide opportunities for further education
and skills development to those who complete the basic education
cycle. As countries develop and the demand for people with more
advanced skills expands, the returns on higher levels of education
increase. This reinforces the importance of a high quality basic
education system as the necessary foundation for further education
and training that makes it possible for countries to accelerate
economic and social development.
ADB’s Pacific Strategy (2005–2009) was formulated against the
background of the generally disappointing development performance
of its PDMCs over the past decades. Economic growth did not keep
up with population expansion; job creation was limited, per capita
incomes declined, and the incidence of poverty and economic
hardship increased. The development strategies of the 1980s and 1990s
that focused on getting prices and incentives right have proved
necessary but not sufficient to achieve sustainable growth. Weaknesses
of policies and institutions, especially economic and social
institutions, have impeded development.4 Causes of these weaknesses
include poor leadership, limited governmental accountability and
transparency, narrowly based participation in reforms, and
inadequate human resource development and retention.
The Pacific Strategy (2005–2009) provides a framework for PARD’s
country and regional operations by identifying overall goals and
strategic and supporting objectives to bring focus and selectivity to
its operations in the region. The objectives are: (i) to support a
conducive environment for the private sector; (ii) to enhance the
supply of and demand for quality basic social services (health,
education, clean water, and sanitation); and (iii) to promote effective
development. While all three work together to reduce poverty and all
are affected by the level of educational attainment of the population,
3
For evidence on economic returns see Patrinos and Psacharopoulos 2002, Table 5 and Schultz 1993.
Lockheed and Verspoor 1991 provides a summary of the full range of social and economic benefits.
4
“Institutions” encompass not only the organizations and structures that frame economic and social
behavior, but also the “rules of the game” by which that behavior is carried out (ADB 2004d).
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Introduction
the second objective directly focuses on education. It aims to enhance
the potential contribution of education to development and poverty
reduction through improved policies and strengthened institutions.
The education and training sector strategy, therefore, needs to pay
particular attention to the extent to which the priority education needs
of the poor are being met, what the remaining challenges are, and
how those challenges might be met effectively. In this perspective,
quality basic education for all must be a top priority with strategies:
(i) that are relevant and responsive to national objectives and client
needs; (ii) that effectively allocate public, private, and donor resources
for basic education; and (iii) that enhance the capacity to manage and
deliver high quality basic education services.
Purpose and Process of the Strategy Paper
This education and training sector strategy operationalizes PARD’s
strategic framework for the education sector, sharpens the focus, and
enhances the effectiveness of ADB support to education in the region.
It explores where and how ADB with its limited resources can make
the greatest impact toward improving the performance of the education
sector in the Pacific region. Many PDMCs face constraints due to their
small population sizes and their remoteness, which means that
standard service delivery mechanisms may be costly and ineffective.
These countries may instead need strategies that build on the
opportunities that smallness provides to mobilize local support and
involvement. Several larger countries will have to implement education
development programs in the context of increasingly severe resource
constraints. Given the important differences among PDMCs in terms
of their geography, natural resources, cultures, and development status
and performance, the strategy can only provide a framework for
country-level actions and for the strengthening of regional support
mechanisms.
The importance of external development partners and regional
institutions involved in education development in the Pacific region
makes it imperative to recognize that unless ADB works in partnership
with other agencies, the impact of its lending on education
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Better Learning, Better Future: Education and Training Sector Strategy
development in the PDMCs is likely to be limited.5 The ADB education
and training sector strategy, therefore, will be successful only to the
extent that its programs (i) are well aligned from conception to
implementation with national education development priorities and
with the support of other development partners, (ii) capitalize on the
contributions of regional agencies, and (ii) build on ADB’s comparative
advantage as an independent agency with a strong economic and
social policy focus, broad experiences throughout Asia and the Pacific,
and a capacity to tap experience from other regions.
Consultations during the preparation of the Pacific education
and training sector strategy provided many valuable insights. In May
2003, a brief note on the strategy was presented in a meeting of donors
and education officials from PDMCs in Nadi, Fiji Islands. Subsequently,
terms of reference were developed, discussed within ADB, and
circulated to funding agencies as well as to several PDMCs. Published
and unpublished data and analyses on population, enrollment,
financing, and other key issues—including recent education reviews
and sector plans in Fiji Islands, Papua New Guinea (PNG), Federated
States of Micronesia (FSM), Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI),
Samoa, Tonga, and Tuvalu6—were important sources of information.
Further information was gathered during field visits to selected PDMCs7
in focus group meetings with various stakeholders in education—
government agencies, funding agencies, church groups,
nongovernment organizations (NGO), parents, teachers, and local
communities. The interests and comparative advantage of key bilateral
and multilateral agencies were reviewed in meetings and discussions
and through the analysis of secondary documentation. A draft strategy
was then formulated and circulated for comments from ADB staff,
development partners, and the PDMCs. This process of consultation
and dissemination is an important element of the ADB approach to
policy development and implementation and will be continued.
5
It should be noted that the number of external development partners are diminishing. Recently, the
United Kingdom and Canada have withdrawn. Other individual European Union countries are invisible
in the region.
6
ADB 2000a; ADB 2003h; ADB 2004g; ADB 2004k; ADB and Samoa Ministry of Education, Sports
and Culture 2004; The Independent State of Samoa, AusAID and Papua New Guinea Department
of Education 2002; Lowry and Rorris 1999; and Tonga Ministry of Education 2004.
7
FSM, PNG, and Vanuatu. Information was also collected and the strategy discussed with
representatives of the Governments of Samoa and Tuvalu as well as NGOs, churches, parents, and
pupils during ADB missions.
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Introduction
The paper next summarizes the challenges of the regional context
to which the education sector must respond (Chapter 2). It reviews
the progress of education development in the region and identifies
the challenges that remain to be addressed (Chapter 3). It describes
the support external partners are providing for education
development in the PDMCs (Chapter 4). The paper then focuses on
the challenges of equity, high quality service delivery, and
development planning and management that PDMCs will need to
address more effectively (Chapter 5). The final section (Chapter 6)
discusses the way ADB can most effectively contribute to education
development in the Pacific region and the strategic agenda for action.
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Chapter 2
Regional Context
Economic Performance
and Challenges
Economic Growth and Poverty
Tables A1.1 and A1.2 in Appendix 1 show detailed social and
economic profiles including the level of national income,
external aid dependency, employment, and demographic trends
of the PDMCs. PNG, Solomon Islands, and Timor-Leste have income
levels that barely exceed the African average. Except for Fiji Islands,
the remaining are middle-income, small island states with populations
of 20,000 to 200,000 people, in many cases scattered over a large
number of islands. The variation in performances by the PDMCs
despite their similar natural conditions suggests that a significant
constraint to development lies in the weaknesses of policies and
institutions and that intervention to remedy them would be conducive
to development.
The majority of the Pacific population relies on subsistence
farming and fishing, government employment, servicing government
employees, and work in the international maritime industry for their
livelihoods. In addition, employment opportunities in the services
sector, especially in tourism and international call centers are growing.
With the exception of the poorest PDMCs, abject poverty may not be
prevalent in many, but poverty of opportunity and hardship occurs in
almost all (ADB 2003f ). Hardship is characterized by limited access to
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Regional Context: Economic Performance and Challenges
basic services, lack of opportunities to participate fully in
socioeconomic life, and lack of cash to meet basic household needs
and customary obligations to the extended family, the community,
and the church. The United Nations Development Programme
(UNDP) estimates suggest that about 43% of the total population lives
close to the poverty line. Of this group, 95% live in Melanesia (PNG,
Solomon Islands, and Vanuatu) (UNDP 1999).8 The tradition of mutual
support in the extended family and the community often conceals
the extent of poverty or deprivation. Indigenous cultures and
traditions have remained strong in the Pacific and continue to play
an important role in political, economic, and cultural life. These
cultural and social values continue to contain the incidence of poverty,
but there are clear indications that the systems and the values that
support them are slowly eroding.
PDMCs have obtained strong support for their economic and
social development from bilateral and multilateral development
partners.9 Two features of aid to the Pacific are noteworthy: a per capita
amount significantly higher than the global average and a high
proportion of technical assistance. Bilateral assistance reflects colonial
history and national interests. Among the bilateral agencies, Australia,
Japan, New Zealand, and the United States (US) are major players.
Australia is one of the biggest donors in the Pacific allocating around
A$480 million per annum of which roughly 75% is allocated to PNG
(AusAID 2002). In its 2002/03–07/08 strategy, the Australian Agency
for International Development (AusAID) responded to instability in
the South Pacific, especially in Melanesia and Timor-Leste, with a
sharper focus on establishing the foundations for stability, growth,
and peaceful development to ensure law and order, accountable and
democratic governments, more equitable growth, and enhanced
service delivery. The US is the key donor in FSM, RMI, and Palau
through compact funds that accounted for over 95% of bilateral
assistance to these countries in 1998.10 The first compact allowed the
government freedom in allocating funds to sectors. Compact II (2004–
2024) continues to provide large, though reduced, amounts with a new
emphasis on greater accountability and an outcome-based approach.
8
Please note that Timor-Leste is not a Pacific country under UNDP.
9
This subsection draws on ADB 2000c and ADB 2004d, Attachment 7.
10
World Bank 2000 provides 23.5% of total aid to the Pacific, mainly to FSM, Palau, and RMI (Pacific
Islands Forum Secretariat 2002i).
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Better Learning, Better Future: Education and Training Sector Strategy
New Zealand has a focus on poverty reduction through assistance in
improving health, education, the environment, human resource
development, and private sector growth. Its core geographical focus
is the Pacific, especially the Polynesian countries. Through its official
development assistance, Japan provides assistance in the Pacific with
a focus on agriculture, forestry, fisheries, and basic infrastructure.
Recently, Japan has started giving greater emphasis to institutional
strengthening and human resource development. The United
Kingdom focuses on education and on good governance.11 The
People’s Republic of China and Taipei,China are active in the region
and usually support stand-alone infrastructure projects.
Of the multilateral agencies, ADB and the European Union (EU)
are main contributors while the various United Nations (UN) agencies
have implemented significant, high-quality programs, especially in
the social sectors. ADB is a key player in the region with approval of
about $50 million–$100 million in loans and about $15 million in
technical assistance grants annually (ADB 2000c). Its assistance has
focused on promoting good governance and macroeconomic stability.
It has also promoted more efficient and effective institutions for
infrastructure management in transport, energy, and water supply and
sanitation. This has meant more business-like approaches for
government departments and state-owned enterprises. An internal
review of ADB’s Pacific Strategy for 2000–2004 indicated a need for
greater and longer-term focus in its programs and clearer and more
specific objectives and performance indicators. The new Pacific
strategy will provide clearer guidance on resource implications and
implementation (ADB 2004d).
The EU primarily supports transport, communication, industry,
construction (including schools), mining, and energy. The World Bank
is involved in infrastructure, transport, agriculture, education, health,
delivery of public services, macroeconomic stability, capital markets,
trade and investment, and governance. The International Monetary
Fund assists central banks and ministries of finance in the region and
with UNDP jointly established the Pacific Financial Technical
Assistance Centre in Suva, Fiji Islands. ADB, AusAID, and the New
Zealand Agency for International Development (NZAID) support the
11
Note that in recent years, the United Kingdom has officially closed its bilateral programs in the
Pacific region.
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Regional Context: Economic Performance and Challenges
center while the Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat (PIFS) sits on the
review group. Its primary aim is to build the skills and institutional
capacity in PDMCs for effective and sustainable economic and
financial management. UNDP coordinates the activities of various UN
agencies in employment, sustainable livelihood, gender issues,
disadvantaged groups, environment, and governance.
The economic performance of PDMCs over the last decade has
been mixed. While eight countries12 witnessed rates of gross domestic
product (GDP) growth varying from 0.8% (Vanuatu) to 4.6% (Kiribati)
during 1995–2002,13 five countries14 had negative per capita growth.
The weighted average of PDMCs for the period was as low as 0.9%. A
positive turn is expected with a projected 2.9% growth in 2004 and
2.4% in 2005 (ADB 2004a). Nevertheless, the overall picture of PDMCs
continues to present tremendous economic and social challenges.
With a saturated or downsized public sector and a sluggish private
sector, job creation has been minimal. The best prospects for job
creation lie in tourism, small-scale manufacturing, financial services,
and overseas employment. However, with few exceptions, the
potential for developing these sectors has yet to be fulfilled.
Development Constraints
Three types of constraints on development confront PDMCs. The
first is natural: smallness, remoteness and isolation, limited resources
for economic diversification, and susceptibility to natural disasters. All
of these contribute to their vulnerability and to their exposure to
exogenous shocks over which they have little control and from which
they have little capacity to withstand or to recover. Relative stability
can turn into vulnerability when an existing resource is exhausted and
an alternative source of revenue is elusive.15 The vast distances between
communities combined with associated travel and communication
12
Cook Islands, Fiji Islands, Kiribati, Samoa, Timor-Leste, Tonga, Tuvalu, and Vanuatu.
13
ADB Pacific Department database.
14
FSM, PNG, RMI, Solomon Islands, and Vanuatu.
15
A typical case is the imminent exhaustion of phosphate mining in Nauru that has been its mainstay
of revenue since 1906. The economic downturn and ensuing lower incomes will present a major
challenge to Nauruan people who have enjoyed relative affluence sustained by high phosphate
earnings. The low priority attached to education and the resulting low profile in educational attainment
has to be rectified urgently to prepare Nauruan people for alternative employment. See ADB 2000b.
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constraints in most PDMCs create important challenges for
governments in delivering services to remote communities and
vulnerable populations.
Isolation and demographic pressures in others are exacerbating
these problems. The total population in PDMCs is about 8.6 million
living on hundreds of islands spread across thousands of square miles
of ocean. At least a third of the population in the Pacific is in the 0–14
age group. About two-thirds of the populations live in rural areas, but
migration to other countries as well as migration to small towns and
cities has become a significant trend weakening societal and familial
structures, boosting the demand for public services (including school-
ing), and increasing unemployment. The limited capacity of the rural
economy has led many to move to urban areas that have great diffi-
culty absorbing these newcomers. Without the social safety net that
their extended families usually provide at home, they become a new
urban underclass. This has become a pressing social problem and is
described as a “time bomb” in Vanuatu where 43% of the population
is under 15 years of age, most of them out of school by grade 6 or 10,
and ill prepared for life. Population growth in Kiribati, PNG, RMI, and
Solomon Islands is leading to similar situations. Improved access of
outer island populations to basic social services, especially health and
education, and income-generating opportunities may help to slow
down the urban move.16
On the other hand, some PDMCs17 are experiencing very low
population growth rates following considerable migration to the US,
Australia, and New Zealand, attributed to disappointing economic
performance and rising unemployment. The impact of emigration on
these countries is complex.18 On one hand, most of those who leave
tend to be skilled, qualified citizens, which means countries lose some
of the benefits of investment in education and training and may face
shortages in human resources especially in skilled and semiskilled
occupations. The migration of skilled health personnel in particular is
16
PDMCs have been trying for decades to reverse urban drift, but they have failed because of continued
unattractive economic prospects in rural areas.
17
Especially in Cook Islands, Samoa, Tonga, and Tuvalu, but increasingly in other countries too. The total
population of Cook Islands remained at 18,400, but the resident population dropped from 14,800 in
2002 to 13,900 in 2003. (http://www.spc.int/prism). The population of FSM, Nauru, and Tonga, for
example, increased by less than 0.5% during 2000-2003.
18
An important reason for emigrating from Fiji Islands and Solomon Islands is political factors and the
resulting risk and uncertainty.
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Regional Context: Economic Performance and Challenges
a major issue in the region. On the other hand, emigration reduces
population pressure and contributes to the national economy through
remittances. The returnees may also bring back capital, new skills, and
knowledge. Ultimately the economic impact will be determined by the
benefits from remittances.19 In some PDMCs, remittances are a large part
of the economy (47.9% of GDP in Tonga, and 21.1% in Samoa in 2001).
The second constraint is historical. Most of the PDMCs were
colonies or trust territories of Western powers from the 19th century
through much of the 20th century. They are young nations that gained
independence only in the second half of the 20th century, first is Samoa
in 1962 and most recently FSM and RMI in 1986. Most countries comprise
a group of islands many of which did not have a history of coexistence.
Nation building is, therefore, a process of learning to work with each
other as a political entity. Frequent changes of governments and ensuing
political and economic instability in some Pacific countries are an
unfortunate feature in the lengthy process of nation building.
The third type of constraint is institutional. The variation in
performance by the PDMCs despite their similar natural conditions
suggests that a significant constraint to development lies in the
weaknesses of policies and institutions and that interventions to
strengthen them would be conducive to development. For example,
monopolistic policies have impeded the development of more
efficient, open, and competitive telecommunications and
transportation systems, which might have helped mitigate some
consequences of geographical isolation. Incentives for private sector
development may have mitigated unemployment. Perhaps the most
important challenge in several PDMCs is to sustain progress toward
strong inclusive leadership and public participation in support of a
development strategy that responds to the priorities of the
disadvantaged. There is no reason to doubt that with good policies,
strong institutions, and effective leadership PDMCs will be able to
overcome the constraints of geography and history.
19
In Fiji Islands, remittances are now the main foreign currency earner. For an interesting analysis of
the positive impact of remittances on developing countries, see Ratha 2003.
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Better Learning, Better Future: Education and Training Sector Strategy
Chapter 3
Achievements
and Challenges
in Education
and Training
Notwithstanding the challenges discussed in the previous
chapter, most PDMCs have come a long way in their education
development. For most, universal literacy and universal
primary education are not distant goals. Access to secondary
education has increased remarkably in several countries. Many
countries eliminated gender disparities at the primary level, and the
gap is narrowing at the secondary level. Some PDMCs produce high-
level scholars, who are serving not only their own countries but are
contributing to the global economy as well. PDMC governments have
consistently sought improvements in their education systems in both
quantitative and qualitative terms. There is strong regional
collaboration through the Pacific Islands Forum Ministers of
Education meeting, which has endorsed a Forum Basic Education
Action Plan (FBEAP). Yet, available evidence suggests that progress in
education development in PDMCs remains uneven.20
20
Recently, Pacific leaders called for, through the April 2004 Auckland Declaration, a Pacific plan to
address the challenges facing the countries. The plan emphasizes the importance of strengthening
vocational training and its links to the labor market, initially by standardization of regional maritime
training (Pacific Island Forum Secretariat 2005).
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Achievements and Challenges in Education and Training
This section reviews progress in access to different levels of
education, the challenges of quality, internal efficiency, and equity,
the issues of planning, management, and institutional capacity in the
education sector and ends with a discussion of the financial challenges
to the sector. It is important to note the severe limitations of the data
that the discussion is based on. There are problems with reliability,
comparability, and consistency due to different definitions of terms
and collection methods.21 Within a country, different agencies often
report different numbers for the same indicator. Data for urban/rural
and main island/outer islands breakdown are almost nonexistent.
Incomplete population data make it difficult to analyze the coverage
of the system. Little systematic information is available for the
efficiency and completion indicators, and progress toward the
education MDGs is difficult to document for many countries. Most
importantly, detailed data on cost and efficiency of resource allocation
is fragmentary at best.
Access
Early Childhood Education. The gross enrollment ratio (GER)22
at the preschool level (for ages 3 to 5) varies considerably among
countries (Table A2.1, Appendix 2). It is strikingly low in Fiji Islands
(15% for boys and 16% for girls), while, Cook Islands, Nauru, and
Tuvalu enroll much higher percentages. Most countries enroll more
girls than boys. NGOs, churches, or private operators provide most
preschool education. Government support varies. Tuvalu, for example,
provides grants toward the cost of up to three teachers’ salaries per
institution. In FSM and RMI, the government through the Head Start
program provides preschool education. Most preschools charge fees
and are available to a relatively small proportion of children. There
usually is no government policy guideline or curriculum support at
this level of education.
21
Some countries collect data irregularly, making it difficult to construct time series.
22
GER is all students in primary education divided by the primary school age population. NER is students
of primary school age in school divided by the primary school aged population. In some countries,
the GER may exceed 100% because of intake from younger or older age groups into the primary
and secondary grades or because of grade repetition. It indicates system inefficiency.
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Evidence from worldwide research and experience have shown
a strong positive impact of investment in preschool education on
achievement in subsequent levels. More than half of PDMC
governments have developed policy guidelines, ranging from very
brief statements to comprehensive documents for the provision of
preschool programs. Some have incorporated them in national
curriculum frameworks. To keep expenditures at manageable levels,
most include cost sharing between central and local governments and
parents, often combined with targeted support for disadvantaged
groups. Few PDMCs have such policies.
Primary Education. Tables A2.2 and A2.3 (Appendix 2) show the
progress toward achieving primary enrollment in many PDMCs, but
important variations remain with the GER as low as 77% in PNG to as
high as 143% in FSM. For the net enrollment ratio (NER), only PNG
and Timor-Leste indicate lower than 80% enrollment.23 Table A2.2 also
shows gender gaps in favor of boys in Cook Islands, Palau, PNG, and
and RMI in favor of girls in Nauru and Vanuatu. On the whole, PDMCs
have made significant progress toward universal access to primary
education.24 With the possible exception of PNG and RMI, PDMCs
are well on track toward eliminating gender disparity in primary
education (MDG 3).
Secondary Education. At the secondary level, the GER is very low
in PNG, Solomon Islands, and Vanuatu which enroll less than one third
of the students of secondary school age (Table A2.4, Appendix 2).
Secondary enrollments in Kiribati, Nauru, and RMI are higher but
remain in the 50% range. The other countries have made considerable
progress in expanding access at the secondary level with FSM even
reaching 132%. Gender gaps remain high in PNG, Solomon Islands,
and Tuvalu.
23
However, a recent sector study shows only 69% net enrollment ratio (NER) in Samoa. This probably
is due to the late entry in primary school of many children. A similar situation may exist in other
countries. It raises the question whether the NER as commonly defined is the appropriate yardstick
for assessing progress towards the MDGs.
24
The education development community shifted its emphasis from universal primary education to
covering universal basic education that includes pre-primary to junior secondary and nonformal
education.
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Achievements and Challenges in Education and Training
Postsecondary/Tertiary Education. Education at this level is
limited. Of the relevant age group, only about 7% enrolled at higher-
level institutions in Samoa, 4% in Tonga and Vanuatu, and 2% in PNG
(UNESCO Institute for Statistics 2004).25 Most PDMCs offer some form
of education and training at this level up to the associate degree level
or its equivalent, but in most PDMCs students go elsewhere in the
region or beyond for more advanced studies. PNG, the country with
the largest population, has at least four institutions of higher learning:
Papua New Guinea University of Technology, University of Papua New
Guinea, Divine Word University, and University of Goroko. The National
University of Samoa meets some of the higher education needs in Samoa.
The College of Micronesia also plays an important role in offering courses
at the tertiary level in FSM. The University of the South Pacific (USP)
serves much of the region and is unique in terms of providing borderless
education. It has campuses in Fiji Islands, Samoa, and Vanuatu and
additional extension centers that offer distance and flexible learning
programs in eight member countries. Teacher training colleges in Samoa
and Tonga and education faculty in Kiribati also provide pre-service
teacher training for other countries in the region, e.g., Tuvalu. Students
from PDMCs also get scholarships from Australia and New Zealand for
higher education in regional institutions such as USP.
Vocationally oriented colleges provide postsecondary technical
and vocational education and training (TVET) programs. These cover
such fields as agriculture, nursing, teaching, and seamanship. The
region boasts of some vocational exemplars such as the Kiribati and
Tuvalu Maritime Institute, graduates of which are in high international
demand as seafarers. However, taken as a whole, provision of vocational
technical education in the region has been supply rather than demand
driven resulting in a mismatch between available human resources and
market needs. Greater coordination between providers and employers
to reduce the mismatch and wastage is required. There have been
efforts to review the state of human resource development in PDMCs
(ADB 1995a) to develop a comprehensive national plan for TVET in
Vanuatu,26 as well as reviews of the need to upgrade existing institutions
such as the Samoa Polytechnic27 and Vanuatu Institute of Technology.
25
The average for all developing countries is 11%.
26
In 2002, ADB supported the development of “Policy Framework for Technical Vocational Education
and Training” in Vanuatu.
27
Samoa Polytechnic has recently merged with the National University of Samoa.
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Better Learning, Better Future: Education and Training Sector Strategy
Literacy Rates. Overall, PDMCs enjoy high literacy rates (Table
A2.5, Appendix 2). However, literacy rates in PNG, Solomon Islands,
Timor-Leste, and Vanuatu are still low, reflecting the fact that primary
schooling has become widely available only recently. As a
consequence of the traditional disadvantage of girls in access to
primary education, these countries also show marked gender gaps in
literacy. This represents a significant challenge as these four countries
contain almost 85% of the population of the region.
Nonformal Education and Skills Training. Local communities,
church groups, and NGOs offer functional literacy and skills
development programs. Several target children in environments
where formal schools are absent or where many students dropout or
fail to be attracted by the formal system. Others provide flexible skills
development programs emphasizing functional literacy,
microbusiness, and other livelihood skills to help youth and adults
with low educational attainment to develop their potential to generate
income in informal sector self-employment and wage employment.28
Quality
Concerns about quality are widespread in developed as well as
developing countries. Most quality definitions highlight the different
elements of the basic input-process-output model that commonly
underpins education research and policy analysis (UNESCO 2002).
They are guided by a concept of quality that emphasizes cognitive
and affective results (mediated by quality inputs and processes) that
are measured by the extent to which pupils achieve the knowledge,
skills, and behaviors specified in a national curriculum. No matter
the specifics of the definition, there is a broad consensus that the real
measure of quality is one of outcomes, and that the quality of inputs
is not an acceptable proxy for the quality of outcomes.
A well performing education system produces high quality,
equitably distributed learning. In such a system, students not only
enroll but, most importantly, acquire the knowledge, skills, and
attitudes specified in the curriculum. The cognitive outcomes are most
28
ADB has been supporting PNG in skills development and literacy training through its lending programs.
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Achievements and Challenges in Education and Training
commonly measured by student performance on standardized
criterion-referenced tests or, less effectively, by performance on
examinations. But quite clearly, society and parents expect more than
good test scores; they also have expectations regarding students’
attitudes and behavior that are not easily measured on tests but which
do affect public perceptions of the quality of schooling.
Classroom processes and instructional practices are major
determinants of student learning. Poor quality teaching, lack of
instructional materials, and overloaded and poorly structured
curricula have been found to have adverse effects on student learning
outcomes. In turn, the quality of schooling is an important
determinant of enrollment and retention.
Almost all PDMCs have identified quality as an overarching
concern. The Pacific Islands Forum Education Ministers have
expressed concerns about the level of learning achievement. Actual
learning outcomes vary, with relatively high standards and
improvements in some countries and low performance in others.
Many children cannot demonstrate mastery of the expected
knowledge, skills, and attitudes. Concerns about quality have been
reinforced by declines in examination scores in several countries such
as Samoa and Tuvalu. A study in the Cook Islands found that only
about 70% of the students achieved minimum competency in English
and Math, and only 30% achieved high competency.29 In RMI, 60%,
50%, and 70% of students are placed in at-risk categories for English,
Marshallese, and Math respectively. Private schools, including those
run by church groups, tend to demonstrate higher learning outcomes
than public schools.30 Their performance is an example that quality
improvement is possible given good school management and
committed teachers and parents. Several factors account for the often
disappointing achievement of students in public schools: inadequate
textbooks and learning materials, poor quality and motivation of
teachers, curricula with limited relevance to the local context, and
ineffective instruction. Unfortunately, much of the PDMC evidence
on the causes of low performance is impressionistic and anecdotal,
29
Measured by Pacific Islands Literacy Levels tests which are used in the region for measuring literacy
and numeracy at grades 4 and 6; however, there is concern about the reliability and validity of these
tests. Test results reported in UNESCO 2000b.
30
This information was gathered by interviewing parents and teachers during the field visit to PDMCs
for this paper.
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Better Learning, Better Future: Education and Training Sector Strategy
but taken together, it is strongly suggestive and consistent with the
balance of international empirical findings.
Textbooks and Learning Materials. These are a key input for
quality learning. Shortages of teaching and learning materials are
common in most schools in the region. Many countries do not allocate
the resources necessary to provide a set of textbooks in core subjects
for each student let alone other reading materials. The situation is
worse the further the schools are from the main island. Poor
procurement management often limits availability. Even when
textbooks are centrally available they may not reach schools because
of poor distribution networks. Sometimes the materials are available
in a school but are locked in storage rooms and not distributed to the
students. Many textbooks have poor instructional designs and often
contain factual inaccuracies. AusAID has been providing textbooks
and materials for PNG, Samoa, Tuvalu, and other PDMCs to address
this need. NZAID is also active in this area in their priority countries.
Nevertheless, the need for books continues to outstrip the supply. In
the absence of textbooks and learning materials, instruction is wasted
on copying text from the blackboard and teachers use ineffective rote
learning pedagogy as a substitute.
Teachers. The competence and motivation of teachers are
universally recognized as key determinants of the quality of education.
Sustained teacher development, both pre-service and in-service, is
essential for improving the quality of education. Recurrent school-
based, in-service teacher training can encompass practical methods
of teaching major subjects, ways to adapt the curriculum to the social
and physical environment of the students, understanding how
children develop and learn, methods of evaluating teaching and
learning, management of classrooms, and parent-teacher and
community relations. Unfortunately, many teachers in PDMCs have
not been adequately prepared or do not have the appropriate
professional teaching or subject matter qualifications.31 There is a
need across the region to improve teacher competence.
Subject matter and pedagogical competence are not enough. Low
teacher morale leads to high rates of teacher absenteeism and to
31
See for example Heine and Chutaro 2003.
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Achievements and Challenges in Education and Training
attrition as in the cases of Samoa and Tuvalu. Teacher absenteeism
reduces students’ learning time,32 while teacher attrition requires
additional expenditures on initial teacher training. The causes of poor
motivation vary and may include poor working conditions,
insufficient career advancement opportunities, weak support services,
and unattractive salaries. Furthermore, in many countries, career and
salary advancement seldom depend on performance. Salaries tend
to be tied to civil service pay scales with monetary awards based on
paper qualifications and length of service rather than on performance.
Thus, there are few incentives for teachers to perform well. In some
PDMCs, such as FSM, PNG, Samoa, Tuvalu, and Vanuatu, teachers
have demonstrated weak motivation, low morale, high absenteeism,
and frequent turnover all of which have a negative influence on
student motivation and learning.
Standards of teacher supply in the region are mixed. On average
the student-teacher ratio (STR) is highly favorable by international
comparison.33 In fact, the benefits of the low ratio are reduced by
oversupply in some areas and undersupply in others. For example,
many urban schools are overly crowded, while rural schools have very
few students. This suggests that teacher deployment to schools based
on standard STRs could lead to significant gains in efficiency. In the
lowest income countries, constraints on the government budget are
the major cause of teacher shortages and relatively high STRs.
Supervision and management of teachers by the departments of
education is inadequate across PDMCs. Teachers do not receive
professional academic guidance for classroom teaching nor is there
any strong mechanism to reduce teacher absenteeism.
Relevance. An important dimension of the quality of education
is relevance. A key issue is defining education content for a labor
market that is changing rapidly as regards the skills demanded.
Schools prepare students for a working life that is likely to stretch 30
32
Time-use studies show that when teachers devote more time to instruction, students learn more.
Sufficient instructional time is particularly important in the early grades and for children from
impoverished families who spend few of their out-of-school hours on learning. For elaborate
discussions on this issue see Lockheed and Verspoor 1991.
33
World Bank research found small differences in impact on learning achievement for STR between
20:1 and 40:1 and suggests that in many countries the marginal return on expenditures on
instructional materials will exceed those on teachers’ salaries.
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years or more into the future, during which most people will change
jobs several times and in which the job content is likely to change
dramatically. In the past, education catered to a select few. It guaranteed
wage employment in government and church organizations. With the
expansion of enrollments and limited new jobs, students, parents, and
governments question the content and the value of formal education.
A common solution proposed is the provision of vocational subjects
or programs at the secondary level. International experience has
suggested, however, that—especially when done too early in
development when the modern industrial sector is small—this is often
costly and ineffective and diverts time from preparation in fundamental
skills like language and mathematics (ADB 1995a). In most instances,
youth unemployment is more a problem of economic development
than of education. Training does not create jobs. Students with a strong
general foundation can be trained fairly quickly for a variety of
occupations once the demand is there.
In fact, the content of vocational training is evolving dramatically.
Some vocational skills such as typing have become part of general
education. Other general skills such as mastery of English have
become an entry requirement for specific jobs (e.g., in call centers).
Communication skills, problem solving ability, capacity to learn, and
personal attributes such as initiative and willingness to adapt and
accept change are often at a premium in modern job markets. Few
countries in the Pacific region have considered the implications of
these changes for skills development. This is especially important for
those PDMCs where emigration to industrialized countries is a
realistic option, especially for the better educated.
The relevance of the curricula is often jeopardized by poor scope
and sequencing. Inappropriately targeted curricula (either too difficult
or too easy) frustrate students and increase the possibility of failure.
A central issue of curriculum design and instructional practice
concerns the medium of instruction. Most PDMCs have adopted the
language of their former rulers as one of their official languages. Yet,
research is conclusive on the effectiveness of the use of the mother
tongue in teaching and learning. Compelling international evidence
suggests that with well-prepared teachers and appropriate
instructional materials, students who start in their mother tongues
outperform students who start in the international language. This in
no way obviates the importance of a high level of competency in an
international language as a language of national communication in
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multilingual societies reinforced by the economic potential of English
fluency. A common strategy as adopted in Kiribati, Samoa (ADB
2004h), Tonga, and Tuvalu (ADB 2004k) is to teach in the mother
tongue in the lower primary grades and to make a gradual transition
to English in the upper grades reaching full English instruction in
secondary education and beyond. But for either bilingual or
international language instruction to be successful, teacher mastery
of the international language is essential. Evidence from RMI, Samoa,
and Tuvalu suggests that many teachers lack proficiency in English
even at the secondary level so they use their mother tongues in school.
A final but important relevance issue is the extent to which
curricula are designed to preserve and transmit national culture and
customs. The Pacific Islands Forum Ministers of Education have on
several occasions emphasized the importance of this issue.
Responding to this concern makes it imperative to involve local
education specialists who are deeply familiar with the different island
cultures in curriculum work and textbook development.
Internal Efficiency
Basic education completion rates remain low in several PDMCs.
Several countries remain off-track (Figure 1) for reaching the goal of
retention of all students who enter grade 1 through grade 5 by 2015
(MDG 2, indicator 2).34 In these countries, repetition and dropout rates
remain high. In PNG, for example, 60% of children starting grade 1
drop out by grade 6 (Government of Papua New Guinea 2004).
High dropout rates during the transition period from primary to
secondary school are a concern in several PDMCs including RMI,
Samoa, Tonga, Tuvalu, and Vanuatu. Dropout rates are about 52% at
the end of grade 6 and 56% at the end of grade 10 in Vanuatu, and 25%
between grades 8 and 9 in RMI. In Samoa, only 87% of the students
made the transition from year 8 to year 9 in 2002–2003. Yet these rates
are strongly affected by policy. In Tuvalu, once automatic transfer to
secondary education was eliminated and a selection test introduced,
the dropout rate increased substantially. In 2003, only 30% of the
34
In many of these countries, the main problem with NER is one of late entry, which indicates that
these countries are off track. However, completion rates are very high in many of these countries.
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Figure 1
Percentage of Children Who Never Enroll and Who Drop Out
by Grade 5 in Selected Pacific Developing Member Countries
Source: World Bank and Statistical Departments of Pacific Island Member Countries 2004. Data for
PNG from ADB, AusAID, and World Bank 2004a.
children of the relevant age group were enrolled in grades 11 and 12;
of these, half failed the final examination and dropped out.35 In Samoa,
the transition rate from year 11 to 12 increased from 70% in 1999 to
over 90% in 2002 as a result of policy reforms that provided year 12
classes and eliminated the national examination at the end of year
11. In many Pacific countries, the problems of retention are likely to
be related to inequities in the quality of instruction and opportunity
to learn, as well as to the ability of parents to afford the direct and
indirect cost of schooling. A recent study by the World Bank suggests
that children from poorer households in the Pacific islands are more
likely to dropout and less likely to make the transition to secondary
school (World Bank and Statistical Departments of Pacific Island
Member Countries 2004).
35
Data for various countries collected during various missions, country sector studies, and also from
some unpublished sources.
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The internal efficiency of education has an important impact on
the cost per graduate. Statistics are limited, but anecdotal evidence
suggest that it may take more than 10 to 12 years to give students a
chance to complete eighth grade in the case of FSM, Samoa, and
Tuvalu where repetition is allowed. While there are no analytical study
data readily available in the Pacific, an example from India indicates
that a 50% reduction in dropouts and repeaters will decrease the
number of years of schooling required to produce a fifth grader from
8.67 to 6.37 and will reduce the unit cost of producing a fifth grade
graduate by 25% (World Bank 1993).
Equity
Gender Disparities. While gender is not a significant issue at the
primary and secondary levels in most PDMCs, it is an issue in PNG
and the Solomon Islands where girls lag behind boys in enrollment
and performance at all levels.36 Limited provision and unaffordable
costs have kept many girls away from secondary schools in Melanesian
countries. The gender gap is highly country specific. As Table A2.4 in
Appendix 2 indicates, in some countries girls’ enrollment rates surpass
boys’. However, sometimes the gender balance in aggregated rates
masks disparity that increases as the girls advance through the grades.
For example, in Tuvalu in years 7 and 8, female students comprise
only 39% and 43% of the total enrollment respectively. Although there
was gender imbalance in enrollment in tertiary education in earlier
years, the gap has narrowed in some, e.g., Kiribati, but remains
significant in others, e.g., Vanuatu (ADB 2002e). Gender bias has
persisted in tertiary education with women disproportionately
studying traditionally “female” subjects like education and health care
(ADB 1998). A Pacific regional postsecondary education study,
encompassing Fiji Islands, Kiribati, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga,
and Vanuatu found that only 30% of scholarships were allocated to
women indicating that access was skewed (Subbarao, Dundar, and
Haworth 1994). In addition, the comparatively low number of women
enrolled in mathematics, science, and business courses is a concern
36
There is an emerging gender disparity in most Polynesian PDMCs, Fiji Islands, and Kiribati, where
girls are staying at school longer and doing better than boys. This is becoming quite marked and
there are concerns that boys may need special attention.
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throughout the region. Outstanding female students may be
supported on scholarship programs to study at universities in other
Pacific countries, Australia, New Zealand, or the US.
Rural-Urban Inequality. Detailed data comparing enrollment
and performance of students on disadvantaged remote outer islands
and in rural areas on main islands with urban areas are scarce. This
precludes firm conclusions regarding equity issues. In some countries
(e.g., PNG), many poor children do not enroll. But in most, the key
challenge of equity is one of disparities in the opportunity to learn
and in results. Data from the Cook Islands (UNESCO 2000b), for
example, summarized in Table 1 suggest that students living outside
the capital island of Rarotonga may be at a significant disadvantage.
Similarly in PNG, variations between provinces in student retention
and examination performance are significant (ADB, AusAID, and
World Bank 2004b).
Table 1
Cook Islands, Performance of Grade 4 Students
on the Pacific Islands Literacy Level Tests
% of students achieving
% of students achieving
minimum standards
high standards
Maori
English
Math
Maori
English
Math
Northern Group
84
35
48
43
8
4
Southern Group
78
53
78
69
25
37
Rarotonga
63
82
76
25
54
46
National
71
66
72
32
38
39
Source: UNESCO 2000b.
A deeper analysis is needed to understand the extent of equity
issues in basic education to design appropriate policy interventions
that address the needs of the poor. In urban areas, educational
disadvantages can be found among children from poor urban families,
but undoubtedly the challenges are most pronounced in the outer
islands where schools are dispersed, often under-equipped, and
staffed with inadequately trained teachers. Despite public provision
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Achievements and Challenges in Education and Training
of free primary education in many countries, families have to
contribute to direct costs of supplies, uniforms, and transportation
fees. Many of the poorest families find this difficult.
Rural-urban disparity is probably even more serious at the
secondary level as secondary schools are mainly located in urban
areas. Students from outer islands need to board, the fees for which
may not be affordable for poor parents. Some countries are taking
initiatives to address this. The Government of Cook Islands has
expanded correspondence-based secondary education in the outer
islands. Kiribati started a program in 1998 to build junior secondary
schools in all the inhabited outer islands. The program has recently
concluded and has significantly increased access at this level. Inequity
in access is even more apparent at the postsecondary/tertiary level.
Where there are local institutions, they are typically located in urban
centers that favor the better-off urban population.
Planning, Management, and Institutional Capacity
In many PDMCs, the weak capacity to manage the system and
effectively deploy resources is a major issue jeopardizing the quality
and efficiency of the education system. In several countries, education
policies have not successfully balanced demands for local priority
treatment with broader national policy objectives. Databases are often
weak, and where data exist, they are often not adequately analyzed or
used for policy formulation. Policy processes are frequently haphazard
and driven by donor agendas rather than national priorities. Financial
management systems often lack transparency. Several of these issues
are a direct consequence of “smallness.” Most countries only have a
limited number of managers and technical specialists, often subject
to considerable turnover, which makes it difficult to establish an
adequate core of trained personnel and capacity in the system. Key
sector institutions are often starved for financial resources or have
failed to develop staff with up-to-date technical skills. Several small
countries lack adequate institutional arrangements for curriculum
development, teacher supervision, policy analysis, planning, and
monitoring.
Strengthening the capacity for strategic planning and
management is essential to making the education system more
efficient. There is a need for long-term strategies that focus on quality,
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that help PDMCs to deploy their resources to maximum advantage,
and that are closely linked to the overall national development
program and budget framework. While most PDMCs have an
education plan, the quality varies considerably.37 Some PDMCs—e.g.,
Fiji Islands, FSM, RMI, Samoa, and Tonga—have extensive education
plans. Samoa has been evaluating its achievements and is preparing
its second long-term policy and strategic plan for 2006–2014. Tonga
has completed its first long-term education policy framework for 2004–
2019. Similarly, Tuvalu is in the process of completing its first 10-year
education and training sector master plan to strategically address
associated issues. The lack of such comprehensive plans partly
explains the less than satisfactory performance of many fragmented
projects in the past.
Countries are recognizing the importance of the planning and
management challenges to education development and the potential
for regional cooperation to help address some of the capacity issues.
In the Pacific, there exist over 30 regional educational institutions
initiated by various religious, governmental, and philanthropic
groups.38 Regional organizations such as PIFS play an important
coordinating role in the education sector for their member countries.
In doing so, they contribute to regional cooperation and the
development of regional education strategies. The largest regional
educational entity is the University of the South Pacific (USP), which
was set up in 1968. It offers a variety of courses at the tertiary level for
12 member countries. The South Pacific Board of Educational
Assessment (SPBEA) is committed to providing services to individual
countries to enable them to implement their own assessment activities
to overcome the challenges of scale. A major donor-supported regional
project was the Basic Education and Literacy Support Project 1993–
2001, funded by AusAID, UNDP, United Nations Educational, Scientific
and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), and United Nations Children’s
Fund (UNICEF) and later joined by NZAID. The program aimed at
raising the quality of basic education and provided services, e.g.,
teacher in-service training, which some member countries, due to
their small size, did not have the capacity to provide by themselves.
37
A PRIDE survey indicates that almost all PDMCs have some kind of plan.
38
For a long list of various regional institutions and rich discussions on services they provide and
challenges they face, see Crocombe 2001.
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The commitment to regional cooperation for capacity building
and institutional strengthening in the education sector has intensified
in recent years. The Pacific Islands Forum Education Ministers adopted
in 2001 a basic education action plan designed to refocus formal and
informal education and skills development activities to better support
private sector needs for educated and trained manpower. A central
theme is the need to strengthen national planning and policy
formulation for education development. The plan puts considerable
emphasis on the need to ensure equity and improve quality in basic
education, to develop appropriate strategies for skills development,
and to develop partnerships with civil society organizations and
improve coordination among and between donors and stakeholders,
including governments. The EU and New Zealand are supporting
implementation of the action plan. Particularly important is the EU-
and NZAID-supported Pacific Regional Initiative Delivering Basic
Education (PRIDE), which is designed to strengthen the capacity of
Pacific education institutions to effectively plan and deliver high-
quality basic education. The project is expected to result in strategic
plans for education in all participating countries, formulated through
wide consultation with all stakeholders including teachers, parents,
pupils, communities, and private sector groups. The project will also
help countries implement, monitor, and evaluate such plans by way
of capacity building activities at the national and regional levels,
particularly through distance learning programs. Encouraging
effective donor coordination at national levels will be an important
project activity.
Financing Education
PDMCs allocate substantial resources to education. The sources
are multiple and include allocations from the government budget,
support from external development partners, and funding from
parents and nongovernment providers. Table A3.1 in Appendix 3
provides the percentage of gross national income (GNI), GDP, and total
government expenditure for education for various years. Table A3.2
in the same appendix summarizes available data on public spending,
percentages allocated to primary education, unit costs for primary
and secondary education, and percentages of education budgets that
go to teachers’ salaries in PDMCs. Funding from aid agencies forms a
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large part of education spending in PDMCs. Much of it is not reflected
in the official budget. But it is clear from Organization for Economic
Co-operation and Development/Development Co-operation
Directorate (OECD/DAC) data that the social sectors, particularly
education, receive considerable external support, albeit with
considerable variation by country ( World Bank and Statistical
Departments of Pacific Island Member Countries 2004).
Private resources provided by church groups, NGOs, individuals,
and parents also contribute significantly to the financing of education.
Except for FSM and RMI, preschool education in the region is largely
community provided and managed, primary education is a
government responsibility, and secondary education is predominantly
church run. Government and church collaboration is the usual way
to expand the provision of education services where public funds are
scarce. In Fiji Islands, PNG, Samoa, Solomon Islands, and Vanuatu, the
governments pay the teachers of all registered schools, but
management and maintenance lies partly or wholly with the
community and churches. In Kiribati, for example, a student in a church
secondary school costs the Government $300 a year as compared with
$2,000 in a government school (ADB 2002e). Parents contribute to
school financing by paying direct and indirect miscellaneous fees in
basic education and tuition and miscellaneous fees in post-basic
education. In Vanuatu, parents pay a $46.95 equivalent per year for
primary and a $93.90 equivalent for secondary school. School fees are
estimated to amount to some 13% of recurrent expenditures for
primary and secondary public schooling (ADB 2000e). School
committees govern the schools and are responsible for the physical
maintenance of buildings. Parent-teacher associations help to raise
funds to acquire equipment and facilities and to maintain schools.
These different sources of funding make it difficult to do a
comprehensive assessment of the total resources available for
education development.
A central question is how efficiently these resources are used to
achieve the education development goals of equity of access, quality
of learning outcomes, and relevance to the needs of social and
economic development that are desired by all countries. Only
scattered data with uncertain reliability are available at this point.
Several key points stand out.
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Education expenditures as a percentage of GDP are relatively
high by international standards.

The share of education in the national budget averages about
17% which is at par with other developing countries (UNDP
1999) while Fiji Islands and Vanuatu commit a higher
proportion.39

The share of primary education is comparatively low in Cook
Islands, RMI, and Tuvalu. Some analyses (World Bank and
Statistical Departments of Pacific Island Member Countries 2004)
suggest that in some countries relatively generous funding of
secondary education may deprive primary education of the
resources it needs to be able to function effectively.40 In others,
tertiary education absorbs a disproportionate amount of
resources (ADB 2003f).41

STRs are low in several countries, resulting in relatively high
costs per student. Many countries in Asia and in other regions
have achieved acceptable levels of student learning with class
sizes of around 30 (e.g., STR in Korea is 32).42 There is not a lot
of research evidence that suggests that very low STRs result
in high levels of student learning. The impact of textbooks
and other instructional materials and time spent learning
appear to be much more important.

Allocations for nonsalary expenditures are very low. Most of
the recurrent budgets go to staff salaries. This makes it neces-
sary for governments to seek other sources of funding, nota-
bly external assistance, for curriculum development, teacher
training, equipment procurement, and school buildings. In
PNG and Samoa, government revenues largely support recur-
rent budgets, and aid funding supports development initia-
tives. In FSM and RMI, the education budgets rely heavily on
US compact funds.
39
See Appendix 3. It is worth noting that the ratio of government spending to GDP is very high in
several PDMCs.
40
In fact there is considerable variation in the share of the budget allocated to secondary education:
Fiji Islands and Vanuatu allocate about 50% of the education budget for this purpose and PNG less
than 10% (UIS data).
41
Palau, for example, spent in 2000/01 more than 30% of it education budget on post secondary
education (UIS data).
42
The EFA fast-track framework suggests a maximum of 40.
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.
Better Learning, Better Future: Education and Training Sector Strategy
Information on the financing of education in the Pacific is weak
and precludes a meaningful analysis of budget allocations and cost
per student in different countries. Regional cooperation and
cooperation with institutions outside the region may need to be
developed more systematically at the tertiary level where the
per-student costs are high and are particularly sensitive to economies
of scale. ICT may offer opportunities to address issues in a cost-
effective way.
Cross-national studies generally suggest a positive correlation
between the level of economic growth and that of educational
development. However, Figure 2 shows no clear relationship for
PDMCs between NER and GNI per capita at the primary level and a
very mixed relationship at the secondary level. In any event,
interpretation of these relationships must take account of very
different and specific national dynamics underlying education
development, although it is clear that very different levels of
enrollment can be achieved at the same level of GNI.
Figure 2
Primary and Secondary Gross Enrollment Rates by
Gross National Income Per Capita in Selected PDMCs
Source: ADB 2004c.
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This raises the question of why the educational performance of
some countries is disappointing in spite of high levels of
expenditures.43 In several of the higher income PDMCs, student
learning achievement is unacceptably low and secondary enrollment
much less than could be expected given their levels of income. For
example, in the lower income countries (PNG, Solomon Islands, and
Timor-Leste) secondary gross enrollment varies between 14% and
34%. In the middle-income countries (GNI $1,000–$2,000), secondary
enrollment rates range from 28.6% in Vanuatu to 109% in FSM. Skills
development remains a challenge to be addressed in virtually every
country in the region. Clearly, there are important issues of resource
allocation and utilization that need to be tackled if progress toward
quality, relevance, and equity is to be accelerated and sustained. Many
of these issues are typical of the education policy challenges in low-
income countries.44 It is not surprising that they dominate the policy
environment in the low-income Melanesian countries, but it is
disappointing to see that they remain to be addressed effectively in
several of the other higher income PDMCs. Clearly, it is government
policy that matters. At all levels of income, efficiency in the allocation
of public resources between levels of education and different inputs
is of paramount importance as is the effectiveness of the processes
that converts resources to learning results in schools and classrooms.
While a dispersed population settlement pattern makes it a challenge
to realize economies of scale, it is important to explore alternatives to
existing service delivery strategies to enhance cost-effectiveness. Many
PDMC governments already allocate a large proportion of their
national resources to education and training, and it is unlikely that
they will be able to afford to increase it.
43
There is no NER available for FSM, and GER looks very distorted indicating that there is no system of
collecting appropriate data. The documents on school enrollment collected during the field visits
provide different enrollment numbers by grade and province without indicating parallel numbers of
population in the age brackets making calculation of enrollment rates form one grade to the next
impossible.
44
See for example the work of Alain Mingat on Africa.
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Better Learning, Better Future: Education and Training Sector Strategy
The Challenge of Education Development in
Pacific Developing Member Countries

In conclusion, all PDMCs face considerable, although different,
challenges in education development. Most important are equity and
quality. In the larger Melanesian countries, issues of access still loom
large. They, as well as several Micronesian countries, also need to
address significant problems of dropping out and of retention. All
PDMCs are deeply concerned about the low quality of instruction in
many of their schools and about the failure of many students to
perform at the level specified in the curriculum. Almost all PDMCs
recognize the need to better understand the prevalence of disparities
within countries, including gender disparities, at all levels of education
and to adopt effective policies to redress them. Important and urgent
questions are being asked about strategies for skills development at
secondary and tertiary levels that can help support policy to further
private sector development and to spur economic growth.
Addressing these challenges will require a pro-poor policy
perspective. The evidence is overwhelming that the poor, the people
who face hardship, and those who cannot access social services need
to be the primary focus of education policy and public action. This
implies first and foremost that all children must have the opportunity
to complete the basic education cycle with mastery of the knowledge,
the skills, and the personal attributes specified in the curriculum.
Supplying a basic, high-quality service will go a long way toward
resolving demand problems and the resulting disengagement from
education, especially among the disadvantaged groups in society.
There is considerable evidence from around the world that quality,
affordability, and easy access to schools are key elements that
determine the demand for education. It is not surprising that where
education is of poor quality, expensive, and far away from home,
demand is low.
But providing a high-quality basic education will often not suffice
to support national development aspirations, especially in middle-
income countries. All PDMCs face—in different ways—the challenge
of providing students who complete basic education opportunities
for further learning and skills development. A good number will want
to and be able to continue their general education in upper secondary
schools. Others will immediately enter skills development programs,
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Achievements and Challenges in Education and Training
but all will need to be ready to pursue their education throughout
their working lives. Providing these opportunities in a way that is both
financially sustainable and responsive to national development needs
and personal aspirations is the second goal of education policy that
few countries will be able to ignore.
The foregoing analyses also indicate that systemic solutions are
required to increase performance. Policy reform is often at the heart
of education development. Where governments have implemented
the right policies, performance is better.45 Where strong institutions
support these policies, progress will be continuous. Where resources
are allocated efficiently and used effectively, the results can be
sustained. Designing and implementing an appropriate national
sector policy framework and investment program, monitoring
progress toward development objectives, and evaluating the lessons
of experience are essential elements of successful education
development. These represent major challenges for small countries
with limited numbers of education managers and technical specialists.
PDMCs are fortunate that they can call on significant support from
development partners as they tackle this task.
45
Mauritius and Cape Verde are examples of island countries that have made great strides in education.
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Better Learning, Better Future: Education and Training Sector Strategy
Chapter 4
External
Assistance
to Education
External assistance46 is an important source of additional
funding and technical expertise that affects education
development in PDMCs in many different ways. This section
will review the assistance provided by ADB and other external bilateral,
multilateral, and private agencies. Much of it supports country
activities but an important and growing amount is supporting regional
cooperation initiatives and programs. In the past, much of the external
assistance was project specific. Results often have been less than
expected. Moreover, the transaction costs of the aid programs—project
design, negotiations, progress reporting, and supervision—often are
a significant burden for small countries with few specialists. An
important recent development is the commitment of funding agencies
that are actively supporting education in the region to work together
more closely, to program their support in the framework of sector
development programs, and to harmonize their procedures.
ADB’s Assistance to Education
ADB involvement in Pacific education has expanded in recent
years and has been moving strategically toward improving basic
46
Tables in Appendix 4 provide funding amount provided by various bilateral and multilateral agencies.
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External Assistance to Education
education services in PDMCs. Since 1981, ADB has provided a total of
$82.26 million for nine loans and $7.0 million for 22 technical
assistance grants to the education sector. However, out of total lending,
about 30% was allocated to postsecondary ( TVET and tertiary)
education, 27% to skills development activities, and 26% to basic
education (encompassing mainly primary and secondary education).
And of total technical assistance funds about $2.9 million were used
for project preparatory activities whereas the rest was used for sector
studies, capacity building, and ICT. Most technical assistance and
loans were project-specific, rarely took a comprehensive view of the
education and training sector of a country, and did not analyze links
among subsectors. Since the mid-1990s, ADB has focused more on
the education sector as a whole. The education development project
in the Cook Islands and the Samoan education sector project are
examples. ADB has gradually been moving toward a sector-wide
approach for better investment impact. In other cases, it has addressed
education issues in the framework of an integrated social services
program. The basic social services project in FSM is an example of
this approach. It aims at assisting the government in designing and
introducing essential reforms in both the health and education sectors
in order to develop the human resources of FSM in a sustainable
manner.
Of the nine education projects that ADB has supported since
1981, six were approved in the last five years. Five projects have
supported skills development, and four have supported basic
education. The technical assistance program has supported 12
operations in the education sector in the Pacific since 2000, half for
skills development. PNG has been the largest client with three lending
and six technical assistance operations, followed by Samoa (one loan
and four operations) and RMI (two loans and one operation). (See
Tables A4.1 and A4.2, Appendix 4.)
Completion reports are available for four operations. A key lesson
learned in the education development project in the Cook Islands
(Loan 1317–COO[SF]) and the basic education development project
in RMI (Loan 1249–RMI[SF]) is the importance of a sector
development plan to guide resource allocation and coordinate
activities of different aid agencies. Both reports emphasize the need
to take account of and address in the project design institutional
weaknesses and weak management capacity. In line with these
recommendations and ADB’s overall education sector policy, PARD
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has begun to support sector approaches through analyses designed
to develop medium- and long-term strategic education plans in some
PDMCs. This will be continued and adopted whenever appropriate.
Education Activities of Other Funding Agencies
Bilateral funding agencies are important contributors to the
education sector in the Pacific. Of these, AusAID has been the largest
donor. From 1995 to 2003, on average, AusAID provided A$94.25
million per year to 17 countries. The total during 2002–2003 was about
A$91.0 million of which PNG received the highest amount (66%). Other
recipients were Vanuatu (7%), Kiribati (6%), Fiji Islands (5%), Samoa
(4%), Tonga (2%), and Tuvalu (2%). Distribution of funding by
subsector is as follows: primary (34.5%), secondary (4.2%), higher
education including scholarships and TVET (42%), and education
policy and administrative management/capacity building (13%).
About 20% of the total went to capacity building, including sector
programs, and 5% went to regional programs. AusAID is increasingly
shifting its support to basic education. For 2002–2003, A$31.4 million
was spent on primary education vs. A$4.6 million on higher education.
(See Table A4.3, Appendix 4.)
NZAID identifies its priorities in education in its recently
finalized education policy strategy. These are (i) basic education with
the aim of assisting core partner countries to achieve EFA goals, and
(ii) post basic and tertiary education in its core partner countries and
through selected regional programs with an emphasis on achieving
gender equality at these levels of education by 2015. For NZAID, basic
education encompasses the first 10 years of education (early
childhood to junior secondary) including literacy, indigenous
education, TVET, and distance programs. Of the total amount of
funding in 2002–2003, about $15.5 million (68%) was allocated to
postsecondary and higher education including scholarships and
TVET. Other subsector allocations show 13% for primary, 9% for
secondary, 8% for ICT, and about 3% for nonformal and skills
development programs. There is a recent shift of emphasis from
tertiary to basic education that is not yet visible in data on resource
allocation by subsector. (See Table A4.4, Appendix 4.)
The Japan International Cooperation Agency is focusing on:
improvement of basic education by supporting school infrastructure
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External Assistance to Education
development; improvement of math, science, music, and arts;
vocational education at the high school or polytechnic level; and ICT
at USP. Education for people with disabilities is another area of focus
especially in Fiji Islands.
The US compact fund provides budgetary support to FSM, Palau,
and RMI. During 1999–2000, the US government provided 85.7% to
FSM, 77% to RMI, and 45.3% to Palau from its total aid of $154.4 million
(23.5% of total aid from all sources) to the Pacific. In addition, the US
government provides various federal grants and other cash and
voluntary support for which exact information is not available. In
2004–2005, the total education grant from the US to FSM was a total
of $40.4 million, e.g., 41% of total compact grants. In 2004–2006, Palau
will receive $2 million each year or a total of $6 million for education.
In RMI, the total support consisted of 83% from the US (46% US
compact fund and 37% US federal grants) in 2003–2004.
Among the multilateral donors, the World Bank since 1976 has
provided US$109.5 million to PNG (50%), Solomon Islands (25%), and
Timor-Leste (25%). It also helped Samoa with a small grant to prepare
an education sector study. About $5.4 million in grant and
International Development Association credit has been planned for
Tonga and Vanuatu for the next few years. At present, the World Bank
is leading two multidonor projects in Timor-Leste. It is also funding
the preparation of a human resource development strategy paper for
PNG and a regional one for the Pacific. The EU’s total planned funding
from 2003 to 2008 is $48.7 million of which about $34.2 million is
provided on a country-specific basis for six countries and US$14.5
million for regional initiatives ($9 million for PRIDE and $5.5 million
for USP human resource development). The EU funding mostly covers
all subsectors except universities and refers mainly to education
infrastructure, equipment, and learning materials. The EU is ready to
support an education program in countries where a conducive policy
and sector investment environment exists. (See Tables A4.5 and A4.6,
Appendix 4.)
UNESCO’s regional office in Samoa manages some donor
funding. For the next two years, UNESCO is implementing two projects
funded by the Japanese government. The first ($250,000) supports
teacher training in remote and rural parts of the Pacific through
teacher training institutions with a regional vocation. The second for
the same amount supports the collection, maintenance, and use of
educational data. This latter project will be led by the UNESCO
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Statistics Institute and will include work in all Pacific countries. The
regional office has seed funding in the program budget for regular
workshops for EFA national coordinators and for meetings of directors
of education.47 UNICEF focuses on early childhood development
activities. It has also been active in making primary schools child
friendly through projects in four countries. In addition, it supports
some regional programs. (See Table A4.7, Appendix 4.)
External funding has often been slow to adjust to emerging
national and international priorities. However, almost all the funding
agencies are committed to supporting PDMCs in achieving the MDGs
and the EFA goals, and therefore generally recognize the need for
appropriate resource allocation to basic education. This implies in
several cases a reordering of subsector priorities which is now
underway. External assistance is thus likely to have an increasingly
strong focus on achieving high-quality basic education. This will also
help PDMCs meet the international commitments that their
governments have made.
Public/Private Partnerships
Private and nongovernment agencies (church, community, and
NGOs) play a significant role in providing educational services. Some
church schools receive considerable funding from their international
networks. The Church of Seventh Day Adventists and other Protestant
churches have schools in many PDMCs including Kiribati, PNG,
Solomon Islands, Tuvalu, and Vanuatu. Further, NGOs are very active
in providing nonformal education for poorer groups. One of the most
important NGOs in PNG is the Summer Institute of Linguistics that
plays a key role in developing vernacular language materials for basic
education. Education ministries and departments often work in
partnership with church groups, communities, and NGOs and discuss
strategies and policies to provide quality education and to reduce
pressure on the public sector. Public schools may send their teachers
to observe classroom practices and processes in private schools or
may organize workshops to introduce effective teaching and learning.
Governments may consider adopting good practices from private
47
Information provided by the UNESCO office in Samoa.
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schools to improve their service delivery mechanisms. They may also
make effective and systematic use of voluntary teachers provided
through the Peace Corps (US), Volunteer Service Overseas (United
Kingdom), Japan Overseas Cooperation Volunteers, Australian
Volunteers Abroad, Volunteer Service Abroad (New Zealand), and UN
Volunteers where countries lack teachers.
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Chapter 5
Future Directions
for Pacific
Education and
Training
Achieving equity in access to schooling, opportunities to learn,
and results—especially for children from low-income
families—are challenges that many education systems
continue to struggle with. Addressing them in PDMCs will require
policies explicitly designed to promote learning at a high level and
resource mobilization strategies that draw on private and public
sources. Effective education service delivery requires more than the
provision of resources to the education sector. Deploying the resources
efficiently and equitably and using them effectively for instruction is
key. This is especially important in those PDMCs where high levels of
expenditure have not resulted in the anticipated improvements in
instructional effectiveness and student performance. This section
discusses some key priorities for education development that
countries may wish to consider as they develop strategies to improve
the quality, equity, and efficiency of their education service. Clearly,
these strategies will vary for every PDMC and each country will need
to define what its priorities are given the specific education, social,
and economic development challenges it faces.
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Confronting the Challenge of Equitable Access and Quality
Chapter 3 has shown that throughout the Pacific enhancing the
supply of quality basic education services is likely to remain an
education development priority for some time to come. Demand for
education is generally strong, although problems of quality,
accessibility, relevance, and cost can frustrate demand especially
among disadvantaged groups. There is reason to believe that an
effective supply strategy will trigger a strong demand response. Box 3
illustrates how a policy designed to expand equitable access to
education of improved quality was implemented in Samoa.
Box 3
Samoa: Addressing Access and Quality
The gross primary enrollment rate is high in Samoa, but of the 35,790 children
in primary school in 1999, 76% could enroll only in 138 very poor quality village
schools run by school committees. Only three primary schools in the heart of the
urban center of Malifa with 9% of the students were directly under government
control. These schools were overcrowded, with large classes and very high pupil-
teacher ratios. Despite these adverse conditions, a large number of primary school
graduates from these schools gained entry to government senior colleges. The
good academic record of these schools reinforced the strong demand from parents
to have their children educated in Malifa. The government policy of running only
three schools equipped with good facilities created inequitable access to better-
quality education for the majority of Samoan students. Many families from outer
islands and far away villages cannot afford to send their children to Malifa. With
ADB support through the Education Sector Project: Loan 1752–SAM, the govern-
ment decentralized the system to ensure political commitment, ownership, and
community participation. A series of subprojects ensured more equitable access
to schooling by upgrading and/or expanding selected public primary and secondary
schools throughout the country. Three schools in Malifa are being restructured
into a single primary school and refurbished to provide integrated facilities for a
maximum of 750 students from villages in the immediate vicinity. This school will
be managed and run by a school committee thus transferring the ownership from
the government. Simultaneously, six other public primary schools have been
rehabilitated in six villages in the greater Apia urban area and have absorbed the
excess of students from the three schools at Malifa.
Source: ADB Samoa review mission reports.
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There is increasingly robust knowledge based on the experience
with strategies for quality improvement in developing countries48 that
can guide the development of national programs. Box 4 summarizes
the strategic priorities and results areas that this research suggests
for consideration by PDMCs in the light of the analyses in Chapter 3.
A few key points are worth highlighting. First, policies to improve
quality and equity cannot be separated. Over the past two decades
the goal of education policy has shifted from equal opportunity to
enroll to universal enrollment and more recently to universal
completion. Without high-quality instruction, the latter cannot be
accomplished. Quality is inextricably linked with equity. Recent
analyses from a large number of developing countries confirm that
poverty, rural residence, and gender persist as the strongest negative
correlates of school attendance and performance. The impact of
poverty on enrollment, retention, and completion is particularly
striking (Filmer 2001). While data on PDMCs are scarce, those that
are available confirm a similar pattern.
There is little doubt that in particular the high direct cost of
education to parents is a reason why poor children do not enter school
or drop out early.49 In response, many countries have implemented
free primary education policies in recent years. Where governments
decide to levy fees, they will need to make sure that arrangements are
in place to ensure that no child is excluded from school because of
inability to pay. Free basic education is the policy in most PDMCs,
but small tuition fees are often charged as in Samoa and Tuvalu.
Furthermore, education is not really free when families have to
purchase books, stationery, uniforms, and transport. For poorer
families, opportunity costs may also be significant. Efforts should be
made to reduce the costs for poor children and for those at risk. This
may involve fee waivers or cash subsidies for the purchase of textbooks
and supplies. The challenge is to ensure that such subsidies are well
targeted and appropriately and transparently accounted for. Decision
making at the school and community level has been found to be the
most effective way to prevent misdirection or misappropriation.
48
See for example UNESCO 2004b and Verspoor forthcoming.
49
African countries such a Kenya, Malawi, Tanzania, and Uganda which recently abolished primary
school fees have seen dramatic increases in their enrollments.
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Box 4
Strategic Priorities for Education Development that
Pacific Developing Member Countries May Want to
Consider of Students from the Three Schools at Malifa
Vision : Improved education outcomes
Goal : Enhancing education service delivery for the poor
Strategic Objective
Expected Results
1. Confront the challenge
• All children enroll in a primary school of acceptable quality.
of equity
• Community-based preschool programs are widely available.
• Public resources are targeted to ensure gender equity and
equitable opportunities to learn for students from
disadvantaged groups.
• Nonformal programs provide education and training
opportunities for adolescents and adults who never went to
school or who dropped out early.
2. Transform public,
• Resources are allocated to the most cost-effective inputs.
private, and
• Essential inputs are available to all schools.
development partner
• A culture of high quality with a focus on learning achievement
resources into learning
exists.
results
• Curricula are adapted to local context.
• Improved teacher competence and effective classroom
practices are evident.
• School-level resources are used effectively and efficiently.
3. Strengthen capacity to
• ICT potential is exploited for improved access, quality and
manage and deliver
efficiency.
the education service
• Resources are deployed efficiently.
• School leadership is strengthened and effectively supported.
• Organizational structure and incentive to support good quality
service delivery are in place.
• Local control of resources and accountability systems is
strengthened.
• Education management information system provides timely
statistics and performance indicators.
• Opportunities for innovation are tested and promoted.
• Regional technical resources are successfully exploited.
4. Promote education
• Sector programs provide coherent and financially sustainable
sector strategies and
framework for investment and policy reform.
development
• Sector-wide approaches strengthen government leadership
processes that are
and enhance coordination and harmonization of programs
relevant and respond
supported by external partners.
to national objectives
• Effective systems for monitoring and evaluation provide the
and needs
basis for progress reporting and joint review of development
results.
• Cost-effective strategies for further education and skills
development are an integral part of the sector program.
• Participatory processes for the design and implementation of
education development programs including governments, civil
society, and private providers are strengthened.
• Regional cooperation supports the effectiveness and efficiency
of national programs.
Source: ADB Samoa review mission reports.
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Transforming Resources into Results
Investing increasingly scarce resources in cost-effective inputs,
i.e., inputs that produce high increases in learning achievement per
dollar invested, must be a priority for education systems that face
increasingly severe financial constraints but at the same time aim to
improve student-learning outcomes. Some key findings (Lockheed
and Verspoor 1991; Verspoor forthcoming) that are important to
consider in resource allocation decisions are listed below.

The academic level of teachers has variable effects. More than
12 years of general education may not have much impact on
student learning, but language competency is a key variable.

Teacher development is likely to be most effective with a
relatively short, practice-focused, professional pre-service
program followed by continuous in-service training and
support.

One book per pupil in core subjects is likely to enhance
learning achievement significantly.

Pre-school attendance has a positive impact on student
learning.

Time available for learning has an important impact on
achievement.

Repetition rarely has a lasting effect on student learning and
is correlated with high dropout.

Double shift systems are almost always detrimental to
learning.

Multi-grade50 systems usually have no negative impact and
enhance learning when well designed and implemented.
50
Multi-grade instruction is the practice where one teacher instructs a group of students who work at
different grade levels. The one-room schoolhouse is the most extreme form of this.
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As important as the cost-effective provision of inputs but much
less well understood is the development of a culture that explicitly
aims to promote quality and learning. Such a culture of quality is
driven and sustained by a set of values and beliefs on the process of
teaching and learning—a theory and practice of education and a
vision of educational practice—that is widely shared. Key features are
the following:

values that place learning at the center;

a belief that failure is not an inevitable part of the education
process and that all children can learn given time and
appropriate instruction;

a commitment to equitable outcomes and a readiness to
adapt inputs and processes to students’ learning needs;

an improvement process that does not simply define
outcomes and standards but that focuses also on the means—
on the processes and the skills required to bring about quality
results;

a dedication to universal quality learning based on diversity
and flexibility in delivery mechanisms and instructional
practice.
Moving toward such a system means changing the way
stakeholders think about schools and schooling, but it also means
providing schools with the resources—especially nonsalary ones that
can be managed at the school level. Individual school leadership in
such a system becomes critically important. Effective systems of
school supervision and support are a key part of the institutional set-
up. Making this transition toward a high-quality system will require
changes in the way resources are financed and managed.
International experience suggests that it will also require a continuous
investment in the professional and subject matter training of teachers,
head teachers, technical specialists, and managers. This is the heart
of the capacity building challenge.
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Strengthen Capacity to Manage and Deliver the
Education Service

No matter how good project designs are and how many resources
are available, if a country does not have the people, institutions, and
systems to manage the programs and the resources to provide services
of quality, the anticipated outcomes are unlikely to materialize. Almost
all PDMCs allocate above average levels of resources to their education
sectors and receive significant external funding, yet the outcomes are
often less than satisfactory. Strengthening the capacity to deliver the
education service efficiently and effectively is therefore a sine qua non
for bringing about improvements in education quality and equity.
Specific mechanisms need to be developed for small island countries
with dispersed populations and where service delivery is difficult. A
major challenge for PDMCs will be to think through how such changes
can be best initiated in a region where much of the population is
clustered in small settlements spread over a large area and to identify
the strengths of the existing systems that can be built on.
Deploying Resources Efficiently. Increasing the efficiency of
teacher deployment will be an inescapable part of quality
improvement strategies in several countries. In many instances, this
may involve increasing school sizes. Since the school catchment area
is often limited by geography, this may require increases in school
size by offering the full basic education cycle in every school by
transferring junior secondary grades to primary school to make them
part of basic education, possibly in combination with a system of
satellite or cluster schools. This has been done in PNG. (See Box 5.) A
more efficient deployment of teachers resulting in an increase in the
STR would free up resources to increase the supply of instructional
materials, or to provide incentives to teachers working in difficult
circumstances, or to recognize exceptional performance.51
Management Information. A major constraint to improvements
in the management of education is the paucity of education statistics.
This is a serious issue particularly in the smaller countries. Basic
51
It should be noted that it is not always politically possible to be efficient, e.g., by amalgamating small
schools, especially where, as in the Fiji Islands and Samoa case, government does not own the schools.
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Box 5
Restructuring the Education System in Papua New Guinea
The original formal primary education system of six years of primary then
four to seven years of secondary is well on the way to being transformed into
three years of elementary, six years of primary (up to class 8), two years of junior
secondary, and two to three years of senior secondary. Elementary education
includes a preliminary year and classes 1 and 2. Instruction is in the vernacular.
The old selection exam at class 6 is being phased out to allow automatic progression
to class 8. The bottom two years of the old secondary school system are being
transformed into the top two years of primary.
Efficiency gains include the following:
• an elementary teacher force that is paid on an hourly basis and is
considerably less costly than the primary teaching force;
the introduction of a system of parent primary schools to elementary and
smaller community feeder schools, thereby permitting the consolidation of
class 3 and level 7;
• community responsibility for the establishment of the elementary school;
• space in primary school provided by dropping classes 1 and 2 and accepting
classes 7 and 8;
• provision of education in classes 7 and 8 sometimes moving from a
residential secondary to a day school primary.
Source: Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat. 2002i.
information on standard system performance indicators such as
survival, retention, cost of service, and student learning is not collected
or when collected is not analyzed, or when analyzed is not published
and rarely used for policy making or public discussion of education
issues. PIFS has recently begun to support the collection of key
statistics related to the MDGs in collaboration with UNESCO, but
much remains to be done. The paucity and inconsistency of data in
general and in education in particular require serious effort to ensure
accuracy in diagnosing issues and formulating strategies to address
them (ADB 2004d, Attachment 1). An important objective of the PRIDE
project is to improve the basis for planning and policy development
through the collection and analysis of key statistical data.
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Promoting innovations in service delivery. There are important
innovations in the provision of education that have been tested in
countries around the world. Three may be of particular importance
for PDMCs to consider: (i) school based management; (ii) multi-grade
instructional strategies; and (iii) use of ICT in education.
Throughout the world, schools are expected to become
increasingly self-managed and to make decisions regarding
curriculum, budget and resource allocation, and staff and students.
School-based management is expected to improve the quality of
teaching and learning by locating decisions closer to the school,
providing for sensitivity to local conditions, and allowing teachers to
design education programs to meet local needs and to support
improvement in learning (Abu-Duhou 1999). Key elements are the use
of locally prepared school development plans as a basis for resource
allocation, the provision of decentralized in-service training and
support programs driven by teacher demand, and participatory
approaches to program development. They all provide strong
indications of the changes in the “mental models” of school
improvement that are occurring in agencies, education ministries, and
other stakeholders. Initiatives that enable schools—or communities—
to assume powers related to school and educational decisions more
broadly by providing financial resources to be managed at the school
level and by strengthening the capacity of school board members and
head teachers to manage these resources and account for them are
almost certainly key elements of such a strategy.52
These kinds of innovation fit well with the tradition of widespread
community participation in school governance in many PDMCs.
Schools are often run by a school committee responsible for setting
and collecting school fees and school maintenance, whereas
government is responsible for providing teachers, for curriculum
development, for maintenance of standards, and for provision of
recurrent and capital grants. Community involvement and parental
participation in the delivery of schooling has been found to be a key
element of sustainable school improvement and enhanced student
52
It should be noted, however, that where the skill base is low, e.g., in rural areas, decentralizing
school budgeting, curriculum, and resource allocation might not be successful, unless technical
support is provided to help the weak schools strengthen their capacity to manage school improvement
processes. In the absence of such support, inequities between schools may increase, as urban schools
take advantage of the opportunities.
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performance in many countries. This is particularly evident in private
(including church-owned) schools where direct accountability to
parents and supporting communities and the readiness to
communicate with parents on student performance and the
operational challenges the school faces contribute significantly to the
active involvement of parents and to superior performance.53
Experiences in PNG, Samoa, and Vanuatu suggest similar outcomes.
Multi-grade instruction holds considerable promise to improve
efficiency and learning. At the same time, it could be used much more
frequently and more effectively.54 There is considerable international
experience with multi-grade teaching in developed and developing
countries. The evidence is clear. Multi-grade teaching can be
effective—often even more effective than mono-grade instruction—
when an adequate supply of well-designed instructional materials is
available and teachers are trained in multi-grade techniques.
Moreover, it usually has a highly positive effect on the demand for
schooling and student attendance.55 Multi-grade teaching is practiced
in RMI, Samoa, Tonga, and several other PDMCs. Instead of deploring
the practice as is common, efforts should be made to establish policies
that create conditions for its effective use.
There is little doubt that ICT can help overcome some of the
constraints of small size and isolation that PDMCs face. The potential
of communication technology, including computer applications and
remote transmission, in spreading educational opportunities to
remote and dispersed populations is considerable. ICT can improve
not only access through distance learning for remote populations, but
also efficiency in delivering high-quality and relevant education. (See
Box 6.) It is an important means of transmitting knowledge and
information effectively and, by improving computer literacy, of
increasing new work opportunities in the Pacific and overseas.
However, most schools in the region are poorly equipped with ICT
facilities, skilled teachers, and equipment. The number of computer
53
See for example, Lockheed and Verspoor 1991; Jimenez, Lockheed, and Wattanawaha 1988; Jimenez,
Lockheed, Luna, and Paqueo 1991; and Jimenez and Sawada 1999.
54
There is abundant literature on multi-grade instruction. See http://www.ioe.ac.uk/multigrade/ for
a bibliography.
55
To reduce the high cost of small schools, Kiribati has attempted to consolidate students, teachers,
and resources into fewer schools. This resulted in strong resistance from parents when the consolidated
schools were far from their homes. A key challenge therefore is to develop cost-effective strategies
for providing education to small, dispersed, and, often, disadvantaged populations.
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Box 6
Information and Communication Technology
and Improved Education Outcomes
Individuals learn in different ways. The traditional passive classroom scenario
where the teacher lectures and the student reads and memorizes is not productive
for some students. In the Pacific, where a prevailing oral tradition endures, learners
become more and more frustrated and drop out of school. The use of multimedia
which brings into play more of the senses can overcome some of those
shortcomings with the right teaching approaches and good materials. Adding a
degree of interactivity where learners receive immediate and appealing feedback
for their efforts and are then guided through an interactive process to correct
errors can provide an accelerated and highly motivating learning environment.
The children and teachers who live and work on outer islands are physically isolated
from the outside world, even from their capitals, and that contributes to inequitable
education outcomes. In countries where providing training and education to
dispersed outer island schools is difficult, technology can be a useful alternative.Yet,
despite the potential, it is important to proceed carefully and to identify those
applications that impact directly on instructional practice and student learning.
Educational technologies have often been “oversold” by enthusiastic promoters
and “underused” by poorly prepared teachers (Cuban 2001). The most promising
applications are in higher education and upper-secondary education, in-service
teacher education, and international school networks (e.g., World Links).56
Collaboration with private sector specialists for maintenance, support, and
instruction may help overcome start-up problems.
Source: ADB Staff.
56 http://www.world-links.org
users in the Pacific region compares unfavorably internationally.
Where computers are available, they are few and arrangements for
maintenance and software support pose difficulties. Programs in
computer studies are limited. The underdevelopment of ICT facilities
in PDMCs limits the pursuit of knowledge and will disadvantage
students in the region at a time when the global flow of information is
growing.
Intensifying Regional Cooperation. Small island countries cannot
achieve economies of scale. Establishing centers for curriculum and
textbook development or for pre-service teacher training, for example,
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may prove expensive and impossible to sustain given their financial,
technical, and management capacities. Alternative strategies are
critically important. Regional organizations can often cater to the
specific needs of different countries. SPBEA is addressing issues
related to assessments while PRIDE can develop individualized
curricula focusing more on country context, needs, and relevance.
Another alternative is to use ICT to target outer island populations as
is done in FSM and Fiji Islands. Distance education to provide pre-
service and in-service training is well established in many developing
countries. Small economies such as Cook Islands and Tuvalu can use
ICT to improve the quality of their education services.
Improving Relevance and Responsiveness of Sector
Development Processes

In the Pacific as in other developing countries, external support
has been provided largely in the form of project aid. In many cases,
this approach has limited the overall impact on development
especially where external aid represents a significant proportion of
public spending and where a large number of external partners is
involved. Investments have often been determined by agency
priorities rather than by national needs, with considerable duplication
and distortions of spending priorities. Many developing country
governments—including those in PDMCs—are not equipped to
effectively handle the burden of dealing with multiple agencies for
project development, negotiation, and supervision, resulting in a lack
of ownership and limited institutionalization even of demonstrably
successful experiments. These problems are widely recognized by
governments and their development partners. There is broad
agreement that complementary and reinforcing interventions are
likely to be more effective.
As an alternative to traditional project aid, the sector-wide
approach (SWAp) has been used in several countries in Asia and Africa.
It is designed to ensure government leadership in program design and
implementation, alignment of government and partner objectives,
coherence of financial support, and harmonization of procedures. The
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Better Learning, Better Future: Education and Training Sector Strategy
approach is operationalized through several instruments: (i) explicitly
agreed frameworks for partnership; (ii) comprehensive sector
development plans; (iii) a medium-term expenditure framework;
(iv) macro-economic links; and (v) clearly agreed strategies for
strengthening management systems and implementation capacity.
The main features are summarized in Box 7.
Box 7
Features of the Sector-Wide Approach
Comprehensive Sector Development Program
• Sector wide in scope, covering all programs and projects
• Based on policy objectives for the sector and strategies to achieve them
over the medium to long term
• A program of specific interventions and expenditure plans in the nearer
term
Expenditure Framework
• Links with the macro framework and poverty reduction strategy for
integration with the overall expenditure program
• Has an intrasectoral spending plan derived from program priorities
Country Ownership
• Government takes the lead, sets priorities, coordinates the donors, and
consults broadly with local stakeholders
Donor Partnership
• Donors support the country in its role, and align their support to the same
government program
Donor Harmonization
• Donors adopt common implementation and management structures,
preferably those of the government
Source: World Bank 2001.
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Conclusion: The Asian Development Bank’s Pacific Education and Training Sector Strategy
Chapter 6
Conclusion
The Asian Development Bank’s
Pacific Education and Training
Sector Strategy
The Asian Development Bank’s Contribution to
Education in the Pacific

ADB is committed to support PDMCs in their efforts to improve
the supply of and demand for high quality education services.
It will do this in different ways for different countries to ensure
that its support responds to countries’ needs and complements and
reinforces the support of other development partners. ADB recognizes
that it is only one of several development agencies that actively
support education development in the Pacific, that its financial
contribution is modest, and that its lending terms are not particularly
attractive for a number of PDMCs. At the same time, PDMCs and other
partners recognize that ADB can bring valuable contributions to
education development as an independent agency with a strong
economic and social policy focus, broad experiences throughout Asia,
and the capacity to tap experience from other regions.
In many PDMCs, the level of education expenditure is already
high. The priority for these countries is not so much mobilizing
additional external or internal resources but rather providing adequate
and equitable funding for basic education and improving the results
produced by currently available resources through policy and
institutional reforms and more effective collaboration with external
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Better Learning, Better Future: Education and Training Sector Strategy
partners. Under these circumstances lending levels may not be the
appropriate yardstick for measuring ADB performance in the
education sector. Instead, the results of ADB’s work should be assessed
by the extent to which it has been able to (i) help PDMCs deal more
effectively with key policy challenges of education development, and
(ii) contribute to improvements in the effectiveness of external
support, especially for basic education.
Given the importance and diverse nature of regional external
support for education, the results of ADB support will be strongly
determined by the effectiveness of its participation in the partnerships
for education development that are emerging in several PDMCs. The
more closely this participation is aligned with ADB’s comparative
advantage, the more value ADB will be able to add through its
contribution to policy dialogues, its lending, and its national and
regional technical assistance programs.
Supporting Education Outcomes for the Poor
The adoption of poverty reduction as ADB’s overarching objec-
tive has had important implications for its education and training
strategy and its Pacific strategy. It also has implications for the focus
of its support for education in PDMCs. While there can be no single
set of priorities that applies to all PDMCs, the discussion in Chapter 3
of this paper suggests that the challenge of equity in basic education
remains important everywhere, especially as regards equality of learn-
ing opportunity and equity of results. ADB will monitor the progress
of PDMCs toward the education MDGs and, where necessary, sup-
port measures to accelerate progress. There is a robust international
body of research evidence and practical experience that ADB can draw
on (Chapter 4) to shape its contribution to the policy dialogue and to
strategic interventions in this area.
A second area of focus must be skills development. It is an area
of concern that has been highlighted repeatedly by PDMC ministers
of education. It is also a key element of private sector development
and the creation of more income earning opportunities for the poor,
one of the central foci of ADB’s overall Pacific strategy. Unfortunately,
the international knowledge base in this area is much weaker than
for basic education, and the singular features of national economic
development strategies and labor markets often uniquely shape
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Conclusion: The Asian Development Bank’s Pacific Education and Training Sector Strategy
strategic choices. This suggests the need for up-front work to identify
a set of policy options that countries may consider as they formulate
national policies and investment programs.
Strategic Focus
Box 8 outlines the medium-term strategic framework, setting out
the goals, outcomes, strategic objectives, and key results areas of ADB
support to education in the Pacific for 2005–2009. The three strategic
objectives are closely related and mutually reinforcing in support of
the goal of an increased national capacity to use resources effectively
to deliver an improved quality education service that responds to
national needs and objectives. Appendix 5 includes ADB activities for
the medium-term (2005–2007) to achieve the strategic objectives of
this framework. The framework is designed as a frame of reference for
ADB’s education work in the Pacific, but of course the actual
implementation of the strategy will be country specific through
country sector work, dialogue, and program design.
Consistent with ADB’s overall education policy, the strategy
recognizes the limitations of the project approach and emphasizes
the importance of linking specific investments to an overall framework
for sector reform and development. This consolidates a shift in strategy
that has already begun. In some PDMCs, PARD is providing significant
support for sector analyses designed to develop medium- and long-
term strategic education plans and is aiming to use a sector instead
of a project approach to support education development.
Strategic Objective 1: Relevant Education Strategies
Relevant education strategies respond effectively to national
objectives and client needs. While PDMCs have identified the need to
improve basic education service delivery, most have not succeeded
in putting in place the policies and strategies necessary to achieve
that goal. Sector analyses have often been weak. Donor
interventions—including those of ADB—have often been fragmentary
and difficult to sustain, and investment strategies inadequately
focused on progress towards the MDGs.
ADB is already helping several countries develop a national
education policy framework and strategic plan. It will explore, with
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Better Learning, Better Future: Education and Training Sector Strategy
Box 8
Education and Training Sector Strategy for Pacific Developing
Member Countries 2005–2009
Logical Framework
Design Summary
Outputs
Key Performance Indicators
ADB’s and Other
and Targets
Donors’ Activities
(What will ADB contribute
(How will the success of its
(What are the assumptions
toward this goal?)
efforts be measured?)
that condition ADB’s
performance?)
Goal (Long term
PDMCs at least on track to reach
National education
development
100% NER and survival to grade
statistics improved with
objective):
5 and gender equity in primary
UNDP/SPC and PRIDE
Improved learning
and secondary education by
support
outcomes for the
2015
disadvantaged
Outcome (medium term
ADB engaged in PDMCs that are
Client capacity and
development objective
off track for education MDGs or
willingness to borrow
2005–2009):
have significant distortions in
and/or avail of technical
Enhanced supply of and
education spending
assistance
demand for equity,
Pacific strategy for skills
External partners ready
quality, and relevance of
development guiding ADB
to support work on
education services
interventions and accepted by
skills development
PDMCs
Strategic objective 1:
Sector development
ADB support provided for
PDMC and
Education strategies that
strategies and plans for at
preparation of the sector
development partner
are relevant and
least five PDMCs that are
development strategies and
interest in
responsive to national
supported by ADB technical
plans in three Melanesian
harmonization and
development objectives
assistance and projects
countries through regional
SWAp-based support
technical assistance;
and client needs
Financially sustainable
strategies for universal
Completed preparation of
completion of basic education
education strategies in Samoa
supported by ADB technical
and Tuvalu.
assistance and projects
Involved in SWAp in four countries:
Effective skills development
PNG, Samoa, Tonga, and Tuvalu
strategies supported by
Completed skills development
ADB regional technical
strategies in at least three countries
assistance
as part of the Pacific plan
Strategic objective 2:
Efficient allocation of
Programs supported by ADB will
ADB education staffing
Demonstrably more
public, private, and
include:
sufficient to engage in
effective public, private,
external funding to the
– review of education expenditures
SWAp-based policy
and development
basic education subsector
and an analysis of the financial
dialogue and analytical
partner resource
through ADB supported/
sustainability of proposed
work
allocations for basic
led policy dialogue
policies and investments
– targeted policies and
education
expenditures to ensure
equitable learning outcomes
– explicit support for innovations
for more cost-effective service
delivery
Strategic objective 3:
Strengthened national
ADB lending operations as well
PDMCs ready to adopt
Enhanced capacity of
capacity and regional
as country and regional technical
policy reforms;
PDMC to manage and
support systems for a more
assistance all include support for:
development partners
deliver a basic education
effective delivery of
– a baseline assessment of organi-
and regional institutions
service of quality
education services in at
zation capacity and institutional
ready to align their
least five PDMCs
effectiveness
intervention with
supported by ADB
– identification of specific capacity
country capacity
technical assistance and
building needs at school,
building priorities
projects
national, and regional level
– financing of institutional
reforms and staff training
– involvement of all stakeholders
Source: ADB Staff.
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Conclusion: The Asian Development Bank’s Pacific Education and Training Sector Strategy
PRIDE, their needs for additional support especially in countries where
ADB and collaborating agencies want to move to sector programs. ADB
will also support regional initiatives in developing strategies, especially
for vocational training and skills development under the Pacific plan.
A first priority in this approach will be to carry out sector analyses that
provide a robust basis for the design of policy reforms and expenditure
programs that, most importantly, ensure effective and equitable basic
education service delivery. This work should be supported and
reviewed jointly by the government concerned and its development
partners—including ADB. In addition, ADB will develop a knowledge
base that will allow it to engage in a dialogue with governments and
development partners on the most effective and efficient way to provide
opportunities for skills development. Regional technical assistance
support will be available to analyze the issues and develop policy
options appropriate for the Pacific.
ADB will give priority in its support to those countries that are
off track in respect of the education MDGs. The large Melanesian
countries in particular face challenges in this regard. A number of
donor agencies have been active in these countries, and in some the
absorptive capacity of governments is in question. ADB will enhance
its engagement in these countries by joining donor agencies that
already actively support basic education development, through active
participation in policy dialogues and through the provision of technical
assistance and lending operations as appropriate. In addition,
sustained progress in several other PDMCs toward the education MDGs
is limited by severe distortions in education spending. Helping these
countries enhance the efficiency of education spending will be a
priority for ADB technical support and possibly for lending.
In its support, ADB will emphasize innovations for achieving cost-
effective higher level learning outcomes. Priority areas will be the
development of and experimentation in research-based strategies: (i)
for effective multi-grade instruction, (ii) for the development of a
positive regulatory framework and effective partnership arrangements
with the private sector providers including NGOs and faith-based
organizations; and (iii) for the use of ICT to support teacher training,
the interaction between students from different parts of the region and
even outside, and provision of instructional support to teachers and
students in upper secondary schools especially in math and science.
There are other areas that are of critical importance such as the
development and introduction of local languages in the early grades
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Better Learning, Better Future: Education and Training Sector Strategy
of primary school, the improvement of teachers’ English language
capability, and the development of effective strategies for community-
based early childhood education. ADB will emphasize the need to
include these in sector development strategies, but it does not consider
that it has a particular comparative advantage in direct analysis and
program design in these areas. There are probably other partners that
are better qualified to provide technical support in these areas.
Strategic Objective 2: Effective Resource Allocations
The central issue ADB proposes to emphasize will be the need
to improve the management of resources within the education sector
and at the school level. This will imply an emphasis on the collection
of information regarding the sources of funding, the allocation of
resources to schools, and the utilization of these resources at the
school level. Currently information on actual spending, on cost per
student, and on cost per graduate is often not available or is unreliable.
This makes it difficult to develop an expenditure projection model
that covers the totality of expenditures and allows government and
development partners to engage in a dialogue on investment priorities
based on information on long-term financial implications. Support
for technical work in this area will be a high priority for ADB. Where
necessary, ADB will make the case with governments, the private
sector, and with other funding agencies to (i) reallocate resources to
the basic education subsector, and (ii) encourage the development of
a regulatory environment that will be conducive to the emergence of
new private providers particularly for skills development programs
at the higher levels.
A second area of concern for ADB is the allocation of resources
for targeted investments to help the poor overcome obstacles to their
access to basic education of quality. This may involve above-average
allocations of resources for instructional materials and supplies to
schools that enroll large numbers of disadvantaged students. In other
cases, it may mean waiving fees or making scholarships available to
students—especially girls—from poor families who cannot afford to
enroll their children in school and ensure that they have the required
supplies.
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Conclusion: The Asian Development Bank’s Pacific Education and Training Sector Strategy
Strategic Objective 3: Enhanced Capacity to Manage
Relevant education strategies and adequate resource allocation
to basic education are not enough to achieve results. The need for
enhancing the capacity to implement the strategies and to manage
the resources effectively may be the most important. ADB has long
been involved in strengthening the capacity for education sector
management in PDMCs. It will continue its support by helping PDMCs
strengthen their capacity to deliver high-quality education services
through technical assistance and project financing both at the country
and regional levels. ADB is ready to work together with PRIDE and
PIFS and, where needed, to strengthen the capacity to help countries
implement education and training strategies under its Pacific Plan and
the Forum Basic Education Action Plan. It should be noted that the
nature of capacity building strategies is changing. Changes in the way
the sector is managed bring the limitations of past capacity building
strategies to the fore.
As the management of the sector becomes increasingly
decentralized, more staff have management responsibilities that are
of a different nature. For example, head teachers are expected
increasingly to manage important budgets. Ministry staff are expected
to develop policy through consultative processes. Public
accountability is a challenge that managers at all levels need to be
ready for. Finally, an important challenge is the management of
relations with nongovernment providers in such a way that they can
contribute efficiently to national education development objectives.
Capacity building support of ADB and other agencies has
emphasized the training of managers and technical staff of education
ministries. The limits of this approach are well documented (Moulton
forthcoming). ADB will broaden its assistance to capacity building by
including support for baseline assessments of organization capacity
and institutional effectiveness, by identifying specific capacity
building needs at the school, national, and regional levels, and by
providing financing for institutional reforms and related staff training.
Increasingly, capacity building strategies emphasize the
development of networks of professionals who can provide peer review
and technical support. Especially in the Pacific, such networks can help
overcome some of the constraints that small island economies face.
ADB is ready to support the development of these networks through
its technical assistance operations.
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Better Learning, Better Future: Education and Training Sector Strategy
Implementing the Strategy
Country sector development plans will be the basis for ADB and
like-minded partner agencies to help PDMCs establish a SWAp to
education development. (See Appendix 6 for the objectives of SWAp
processes.) This is expected to ensure that education development
supports national priorities in a more coherent way and with lower
transaction costs than has been the case in the past. ADB is committed
to participate actively in SWAps—leading in some, supporting in
others—that are emerging in the region. It will design its support as
an integral part of the overall external support for national sector
development programs. In practice, this will involve participation in
joint reviews of sector studies and investment programs, support for
gradual harmonization of procedures, and ensuring greater coherence
of aid allocations. It is unlikely that at this stage Pacific Island countries
will be ready for SWAp financing modalities such as budget support
or pooled funding that involve significant demands on the local
capacity for financial management, procurement and implementation,
monitoring, and reporting. Strengthening the capacity of government
in this respect will, however, be an important element of ADB technical
assistance and lending. ADB is ready to play a leading role in the
coordination of external support to education through SWAps in one
or two countries. When necessary, and within the limits of its
administrative resources, it would be ready to help mobilize additional
international resources by putting in place arrangements for bilateral
cofinancing for its operations, and organizing consultative group
meetings.
The strategic objectives and the medium-term output targets give
strategic focus to ADB’s education operations in the Pacific, but actual
implementation will take place through operations at the country
level. With 14 PDMCs and limited administrative resources available
for education, ADB will need to be selective. At the same time, it may
be possible to exploit the opportunities created by intensifying
cooperation among development agencies in the education sector to
leverage ADB’s resources and expertise to service more countries than
otherwise would be possible.
ADB’s 2005–2007 education lending and technical assistance
program includes four lending and six technical assistance operations
as shown in Table 2. The support to the education sector has been
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Conclusion: The Asian Development Bank’s Pacific Education and Training Sector Strategy
remarkably wide ranging. However, there are few follow-up
investments even though international experience and ADB
completion reports emphasize the need for long-term involvement
in the sector given the time required for successful education reform
and capacity building programs. Basic education support in Cook
Islands and RMI ended after a single project investment. Even in PNG
where ADB has been involved in several projects, support ranges
across different subsectors: technical and vocational education, higher
education, and a planned literacy training operation. Two other issues
are important to consider.

Four countries (Fiji Islands, PNG, Solomon Islands, and
Timor-Leste) comprise more than 90% of the population of
the PDMCs. Three of these are off-track (PNG, Solomon and
Timor-Leste) for the education MDGs. ADB has not been
active in Timor-Leste and Fiji Islands, and has only had a
single technical assistance operation (for nonformal
vocational education and training in 2003) in the Solomon
Islands.

Several countries have comparatively high levels of
expenditure on education (e.g., FSM, RMI, and Vanuatu).
There may not be a strong case for lending to education there,
but ADB could play an important role in helping them design
and implement policies that would enhance the efficiency
and effectiveness of education expenditures. Tightly focused
technical assistance operations may be the most effective way
of providing this support.
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Better Learning, Better Future: Education and Training Sector Strategy
Table 2
ADB Lending and Technical Assistance Program 2005–2007
(Million $)
Lending
Technical Assistance
Country
Project Name
Amount
Project Name
Amount
FSM
Education & Health
0.40
Sector Strategy
PNG
Literacy is for
10.00
Everybody (LIFE)
RMI
Youth Social
6.00
Services Project
Samoa
Education Sector
5.00
Capacity Building
Project II
for Education
Sector
0.35
Tuvalu
Education Sector
2.00
Reform & Dev’t
Project
Vanuatu
Technical &
0.20
Vocational Training
Rural Productive
0.30
Skills Development
Regional
Strategies for skills
0.80
development
in the Pacific
Implementation
1.00
of Pacific Education
Strategy II
Notes: ADB = Asian Development Bank, FSM = Federal State of Micronesia, PNG = Papua New
Guinea, RMI = Marshall Islands.
Source: ADB Project Processing Information System.
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Conclusion: The Asian Development Bank’s Pacific Education and Training Sector Strategy
There is thus a strong case to strengthen the strategic focus and
the impact of the education program in four ways:

concentrating ADB support on basic education and skills
development as the key education development priorities as
discussed in the preceding chapter;

planning a sustained involvement in selected countries
through a coherent, long-term program of lending and
technical assistance support and follow-up operations when
appropriate;

increasing the engagement with the larger countries that are
off track for the education MDGs;

providing technical assistance to enhance the capacity for
analysis of education financial management to countries
where improvements in the efficiency in resource allocation
is the dominant priority.
ADB will also intensify its support for regional studies on key
issues in education development in the Pacific, particularly:

a regional review of skills development issues including an
assessment of the experience with different strategies to date,
a summary of international experience, and a framework for
investment in skills development in the Pacific;

analyzing and investigating key areas of concern in basic
education particularly those relating to the prevalence,
nature, and causes of educational disadvantage.
These studies will involve wide consultations with major
stakeholders in education, namely parents, church groups, NGOs,
teachers, students, and education officials. ADB will actively seek
collaboration with all education development partners and the PIFS
for the design, implementation, and dissemination of the study.
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Better Learning, Better Future: Education and Training Sector Strategy
Partnership Arrangements
The agenda outlined in the preceding section is ambitious and
presents a significant increase in ADB involvement in the education
sector in the Pacific. Even if a significant increase in ADB
administrative budgets were possible, it would only allow very
selective implementation of that agenda. To implement the proposed
strategic agenda with broader country coverage, PARD intends to
explore possibilities to collaborate more closely with regional
organizations and to reduce the transaction costs of its support. This
could involve a wide range of activities during the implementation of
the education and training strategies, including the following:

intensified collaboration with PRIDE to provide additional
support that may be needed to strengthen the collection and
analysis of financial data, develop education expenditure
projection models, and help countries prepare investment
plans for (joint) appraisal by external financing agencies;

implementation, support, and supervision by regional
institutions with technical competence in the education
sector on behalf of ADB and its SWAp partners;

preparation and coordination of joint review missions by
PRIDE;

ADB managed cofinancing arrangements with bilateral
agencies;

design and appraisal of multi-country operations for
education development, preferably in cooperation with
interested bilateral partners
The success of ADB’s education and training sector strategies will
depend on the readiness of each country to implement them to achieve
the desired outcomes. Another important factor is the commitment of
the regional institutions and external funding agencies to work together
to achieve the best possible education outcomes for each PDMC. ADB
will explore with the PIFS, PRIDE, and other regional agencies the needs
for additional support especially in countries where ADB and other
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Conclusion: The Asian Development Bank’s Pacific Education and Training Sector Strategy
partner agencies want to move to sector programs. ADB will also review
with PIFS, PRIDE, PDMCs, and partner agencies the need to intensify
and expand PRIDE activities and ways to do so. This will require the
readiness of the development agencies active in education in the Pacific
to take concrete steps to further develop the framework for cooperation
and policy dialogue between agencies and senior policy makers in the
region that currently function as part of the Pacific Islands Forum. A
good example of the potential of this kind of wide ranging collaboration
between donor agencies and countries is the Association for the
Development of Education in Africa. (See Appendix 7.) ADB will actively
support further development of this kind of structure for knowledge
sharing and operational collaboration on education development in
the region where necessary through regional technical assistance or
through direct participation. To move this partnership agenda forward,
ADB will engage in a dialogue with these agencies to explore their
interest, to identify the conditions under which this kind of intensified
collaboration could take place, and to agree on a program of action to
be implemented in 2005–2006.
Internal Resource Requirements
Implementing the Pacific education and training strategy
proposed in this paper will be possible only on a very limited scale
with only one education specialist in PARD. A high priority is to assign
other staff to complement the work of the education specialist and to
strengthen ADB’s capacity to contribute to the improvement of
education resource allocation policies in the region. Should donor
cooperation in the framework of SWAp take off, there will be a need
for at least another staff member to support, monitor, and facilitate
these processes. This would be particularly important if a number of
operations were to be cofinanced and managed by ADB. In any event,
ADB regular staff resources will always be limited, and reliance on
consultants will be imperative. It will therefore be important to
develop a roster of experienced consultants who share ADB’s views
on education development in the Pacific and can effectively represent
ADB when regular staff are not available.
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Better Learning, Better Future: Education and Training Sector Strategy
Risks and Monitoring
The successful implementation of this plan will depend in the
first place on the readiness of PDMCs and major donor agencies to
move decisively toward the SWAp strategy outlined in this paper and
the willingness and capacity of the regional institutions to provide
the necessary organizational and technical support once these are
discussed and agreed on with ADB. Second, there is a risk that ADB
may not be able to mobilize the staff support necessary to have a
meaningful involvement in the SWAp. These risks are real, but they
appear manageable. All major stakeholders have expressed support
for a more sector-oriented, comprehensive, coordinated way of
providing assistance for education development in the Pacific, and
initial experiences, especially in Samoa, are positive.
There is also a risk that political and governance constraints will
hinder the reforms that are necessary to improve performance. While
a good analytical and technical foundation is essential, it is not
sufficient. The reforms need a strong conceptual foundation. One of
the key tasks is to help countries build a firm conceptual or
philosophical foundation for their reforms. The commitment to
provide all children with an equal opportunity to learn demands all
stakeholders to contribute to this goal and create a conducive social
environment. ADB and other external agencies can only play a
catalytic role. Equally important is an effective process of policy
dialogue and sharing of experiences that includes strategies for dealing
with political opposition and local interest groups. An important part
of the SWAp is therefore monitoring the process of reform and change
as well as providing support for participatory and inclusive strategies.
The Pacific Forum Education Ministers meetings have called for
improved coordination among donors and between donors and
stakeholders including the forum’s governments. Experience suggests
that major donor agencies are clearly interested in making an effort
(e.g., in Samoa); at the same time there are examples that demonstrate
that partnerships do not always work smoothly. PARD will also meet
at an early stage with the key regional institutions that are best placed
to provide technical support for PDMCs to assess their interest and
capacity to carry out the work called for in this strategy. ADB would
be ready to consider a technical assistance operation to strengthen
the capacity of these institutions, particularly in education finance
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Conclusion: The Asian Development Bank’s Pacific Education and Training Sector Strategy
and expenditure analysis, should this be required. PARD will report
on the progress of implementation of this strategy as part of its annual
reporting on progress toward the key results areas of the third Pacific
strategy.
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Better Learning, Better Future: Education and Training Sector Strategy
Appendix 1 Economic and Social Indicators
age





, 2001
(%)
0.88
0.98
0.97
0.80
0.45
0.29
0.74
0.66
0.95
omen in W
Sector
W
Employment in Non-agricultural
in



F
94.0
72.0
99.0
97.0
97.0
16.0
33.0
99.0
70.0
20.0
, 2001 (%)



M
85.0
53.0
90.0
72.0
88.0
29.0
27.0
47.0
55.0
31.0
Employment
Sector
Non-agricultural


ctive
F
A
2001
74.0
74.0
78.0
35.4
50.1
46.0
68.0
80.0
35.6
41.0
86.0
P
opulation



% of working age
M
85.0
85.0
91.0
66.3
67.2
65.0
86.0
86.0
76.2
73.0
85.0
Economically

population),

(as
epublic of the Marshall Islands.
orld Development Indicators.



eceived
1.9
7.6
Economic Indicators
2002
22.9
48.4
45.6
21.2
14.5
10.9
58.3
16.4
11.9
Aid R
(% of GNI)
Rate Per
apua New Guinea, RMI = R

6.3
1.3
2.9
-4.8
-0.7
0.6
-3.2
3.4
-4.9
1.9
1.6
3.0
-1.7
GDP
-2002 (%)
Growth of Capita 1995-
.

in $,
acific Department database; UNDP 2004; and W
a
960
530
580
520
2002
5,570
2,130
2,380
1,970
6,820
1,430
1,440
1,380
1,070
P
er Capita GNI

Country
ederated States of Micronesia, PNG = P
este
A1.1
P
acific

-L
Developing
I
G
ormerly total and per capita GNP
M
— = data not available. FSM = F Fa Sources: ADB 2004c; ADB P
T
able
Member
Cook Islands
F
iji Islands
Kiribati
R
F
S
M
Nauru
P
alau
P
N
Samoa
Solomon Islands
T
imor
T
onga
T
uvalu
V
anuatu
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Future Directions for Pacific Education and Training







a
2002
0.758
0.542
0.769
0.624
0.787
0.570
13
(1)
(2)
(8)
(7)
(13)
(12)
1999
of
(rank out
PDMC)
0.822
0.667
0.515 (9)
0.563
0.569
0.663 (3)
0.314
0.590 (5)
0.371
0.395 (11)
0.647 (4)
0.583 (6)
0.425 (10)
74
72
66
64
68
66
61
70
68
59
7
1
65
67
Life
birth 2001
HDI
at
expectancy
70
68
62
61
65
59
58
67
65
56
6
8
62
65

19
17
51
54
20
25
70
20
20
89
1
6
38
34
Infant
rate 2002
mortality
M F

T
otal

rate
3.7
2.6
3.6
5.7
3.5
3.7
4.3
4.0
5.3
3.4
3.4
4.3
fertility
2002
age
orld Development Indicators.
2002
35
33
41
44
40
39
40
41
45

3
7
34
41
Estimate 0-14 group as % of total pop.
opulation
pop
7.5
as % of
2000
59.0
49.4
38.2
65.8
28.3
100.0
17.4
22.1
19.7
32.7
52.2
21.7
Urban pop
total
P
p
o
p

3.3
0.8
1.6
3.7
0.2
0.0
3.2
2.0
3.5
1.1
0.4
2.0
2.7
Annual
growth rates (%) 2000-2003
Demographic Indicators and Human Development Index
.
acific Department database; UNDP 2004; and W
T
otal

(000)
0.02
0.83
0.09
0.06
0.11
0.01
5.71
0.18
0.51
0.78
0.10
0.01
0.20
population Mid-2003
A1.2
-
L
este
P
acific

ormerly total and per capita GNP
Member County
F
T
able
Developing
Cook Islands
F
iji Islands
Kiribati
Marshall Islands
Micronesia,
F
ederated States of
Nauru
P
apua New Guinea
Samoa
Solomon Islands
T
imor
T
onga
T
uvalu
V
anuatu
– = data not available. HDI = human development index a
Sources: ADB 2004c; ADB P
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Better Learning, Better Future: Education and Training Sector Strategy
Appendix 2 Enrollment and Literacy Rates
Table A2.1
Gross Pre-Primary Enrollment by Selected PDMCs and Gender
Selected
Duration
Year
Male
Female
Gender Gap
PDMCs
(Years)
(M)
(F)
(F–M)
Cook Islands
1
2000
86
85
–1
Fiji Islands
3
1998
15
16
1
FSM
3
2000
43
49
6
Nauru
1
1998
144
138
–6
Palau
3
2001
62
69
7
PNG
1
1999
40
37
–3
Samoa
2
2001
49
60
11
Tonga
2
2000
27
32
5
Tuvalu
3
1998
71
89
18
Vanuatu
2
2001
75
77
2
FSM = Federated States of Micronesia, PDMC = Pacific developing member country, PNG = Papua
New Guinea, UNESCO = United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.
Sources: ADB 2004c and UNESCO 2004a.
Table A2.2
Primary Net Enrollment Rates (%) by Selected PDMCs and Gender
Selected
Year
Duration Total
Male Female Gender Gap
PDMCs
(Years)
(M)
(F)
(F–M)
Timor-Leste
1999

74



PNG
2001/02
6
77
82
73
(9)
Nauru
1998/99
6
81
80
82
2
Cook Islands
2000
6
84
86
83
(3)
Vanuatu
2001/02
6
93
92
94
2
Samoa
2001/02
8
95
96
94
(2)
RMI
1999/00
8
96
100
91
(9)
Palau
2000/01

97
100
93
(7)
Fiji Islands
2001/02
6
100
100
100
0
Tonga
2001/02
6
100
100
100
0
Tuvalua
2004
8
100
100
99
(1)
— = data not available
PDMC = Pacific developing member country, PNG = Papua New Guinea, RMI = Republic of the
Marshall Islands.
a ADB 2004k.
Sources: Secretariat of the Pacific Community Pacific Regional Information System (PRISM) website,
http://www.spc.int/PRISM; UNESCO 2000c; UNESCO 2003; UNESCO Institute of Statistics website,
http://www.uis.unesco.org; and ADB 2003c.
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Appendix 2
Table A2.3
Primary Gross Enrollment Rates (%) by Selected PDMCs and Gender
Selected
Year
Total
Male
Female
Gender Gap
PDMCs
(M)
(F)
(F–M)
PNG
2001/02
77
77
78
1
Nauru
1998/99
81
80
82
2
Cook Islands
2000
96
98
93
(5)
RMI
1999/00
101
103
98
(5)
Samoa
2001/02
103
104
101
(3)
Tuvalu
1998/99
104
106
101
(5)
Fiji Islands
2001/02
109
109
109
0
Tonga
2001/02
112
114
111
(3)
Vanuatu
2001/02
112
112
111
(1)
Palau
2000/01
116
120
112
(8)
Kiribati
1998/99
131
130
132
2
Timor-Leste
2001/02
143



FSM
2000
143
136
149
13
— = data not available
FSM = Federated States of Micronesia, PDMC = Pacific developing member country, PNG = Papua
New Guinea, RMI = Republic of the Marshall Islands.
Sources: Secretariat of the Pacific Community Pacific Regional Information System (PRISM) website,
http://www.spc.int/PRISM; UNESCO 2000c; UNESCO 2003; UNESCO Institute of Statistics website,
http://www.uis.unesco.org; and ADB 2003c.
Table A2.4
Secondary Gross Enrollment Rates (%) by Selected PDMCs and Gender
Selected
Duration
Year
Male
Female
Gender Gap
PDMCs
(Years)
(M)
(F)
(F–M)
Cook Islands
8
2000
58
63
5
Fiji Islands
7
2001
78
83
5
FSM
6
2000
127
137
10
Kiribati
5
1998
42
47
5
Nauru
6
1998
52
56
4
Palau
7
2000
89
89
0
PNG
6
2001
25
20
(5)
RMI
6
1998
47
51
4
Samoa
7
2001
71
79
8
Solomon Islands
7
1998
30
18
(12)
Tonga
6
2001
94
106
12
Tuvalu
6
1998
83
73
(10)
Vanuatu
7
2001
28
29
1
FSM = Federated States of Micronesia, PDMC = Pacific developing member country, PNG = Papua
New Guinea, RMI = Republic of the Marshall Islands.
Sources: ADB 2004c and UNESCO 2004a.
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Better Learning, Better Future: Education and Training Sector Strategy
Table A2.5
Adult Literacy Rates (% age 15+) by PDMCs and Gender
PDMCs
Year
Male
Female
Gender Gap
(M)
(F)
(F–M)
Cook Islands
1998
93
94
1
Fiji Islands
2000
95
91
(4)
FSM
2000
96
94
(2)
Kiribati
1998
94
91
(3)
Nauru
1998
95
95
0
Palau
1998
94
88
(6)
PNG
2000
71
57
(14)
RMI
2000
92
92
0
Samoa
2000
99
98
(1)
Solomon Islands
1995
62
62
0
Timor-Leste
2001
43
43
0
Tonga
1996
99
99
0
Tuvalu
1998
95
95
0
Vanuatu
1998
37
30
(7)
FSM = Federated States of Micronesia, PDMC = Pacific developing member country, PNG = Papua
New Guinea, RMI = Republic of the Marshall Islands.
Note: The PNG National Research Institute based on 2000 census data calculated the average
literacy rate in PNG at 54.3%. The urban rural differences by gender are striking. (See: PNG National
Statistics Office. 2001. Report on the 2000 National Population and Housing Census in PNG. Port
Moresby. )
a Calculated as percent female minus percent male.
Source: ADB 2004c.
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Appendix 3
Appendix 3 Education Expenditure
a
a
a

6.9




2001/
2002
19.4
14.6
13.1
26.7
, PNG =
a
a
a
a
7.0
––

––


2000/
2001
13.2
22.8
17.5
14.6
14.0
16.9
er country
tion.
a
a
a
a
–––





1999/
2000
10.4
18.3
20.0
13.3
15.4
16.8
17.4
as percentage of total
a
a
a
a
a
a
government expenditure

7
.
0




1998/
1999
13.1
16.2
17.5
13.3
15.4
15.0
17.4
P
ublic expenditure on education

acific developing memb
otal Government Expenditure
a
a
a
a






2001/
2002
5.5
7.0
11.0
10.6
4.5
5.0
10.5
a
a
a
a
2000/
2001

6.0





10.2
2.3
4.2
3.5
5.3
8
.
2
a
a
a
a
1999/
2000

5.4


9.2




16.1
4.0
3.4
7
.
1
as percentage of GDP
a
a
a
a
a




P
ublic expenditure on education

5.5
5.6
8.6
2.0
4.5
3.2
5.4
8
.
6
1998/
1999
16.4
ercentage of GNI, GDP and T
a
a
a
a

5.6
6.7

9.9

8.9
4
.
5


5.0

2001/
2002
10.7
a
a
a
a






2000/
2001
6.0
8.5
2.4
4
.
3
3.5
5.3
8
.
7
a
a
a
a
1999/
2000
0.4
5.5


8.7




14.0
4
.
0
3
.
5
7
.
2
as percentage of GNP (GNI)
epublic of the Marshall Islands, UNESCO = United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organiza
a
a
a
a
a
P
ublic expenditure on education

1998/
1999
0.4
5
.
6
5
.
1

8
.
6
2.1


14.3
4
.
5
3
.
3
5
.
3
8
.
9
ederated States of Micronesia, GDP = gross domestic product, GNI = gross national income, PDMC = P
A3.1
este
-L
Education Expenditure of PDMCs as a P
UNESCO Institute for Statistics estimates.
T
able
PDMCs
Cook Islands
F
iji Islands
FSM
Nauru
P
alau
PNG
RMI
Samoa
Solomon Islands
T
imor
T
onga
T
uvalu
V
a
nuatu
— = Data not available
FSM = F
P
apua New Guinea, RMI = R
a
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics.
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Better Learning, Better Future: Education and Training Sector Strategy
d


STR
17.1 29.0
24.0 15.4 12.5 34.4 20.0 27.6
20.7 24.0 24.0
P
rimary Salaries

uinea, RMI =
d
d
apua New G
%



92.6
76.8 93.4 96.7 81.2
92.9 92.3 97.6 95.5 88.8
T
eachers’ Education (primary)

, PNG = P
d
c




– –
866.0
341.0
433.0
119.0 273.0
604.0
Unit Cost
1766.0
Secondary
Budget
Education




– –
493.0
154.0
187.0
101.0 64.0
194.0
acific developing member country
Unit Cost Primary Education
2358.0
b
rimary in
– – – – –

33.2 52.1
43.6 68.8
53.3 39.7 57.9
% P
Budget
d
d
d
d

of

– –
%
13.1 17.9 22.9
12.7 20.2 11.8 17.3 20.1 12.7 28.5 28.2
acific Island Member Countries 2004.
National
a
%
e
e
3
.
7 5.0
– – 7.9 –
5.5 5.3 5.6 – 9.3
As
10.3
12.2
acific developing member countries.
of GDP
Level and Allocation of Education Expenditures by Subsectors in PDMCs
orum Secretariat 2002i.
ederated States of Micronesia, GDP = gross domestic product, PDMC = P
A3.2
orld Bank and Statistical Departments of P
acific Islands F ate 1990s data from UNESCO 2000b.
Country
UNESCO Institute for Statistics. W Statistical departments of P P L
T
able
Cook Islands Fiji Islands FSM Kiribati Nauru Palau PNG RMI Samoa Solomon Islands Tonga Tuvalu Vanuatu
— = data not available FSM = F Republic of the Marshall Islands, STR = student teacher ratio. Sources: a b c d e
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Future Directions for Pacific Education and Training
Appendix 4 External Assistance to Education
0

180
97,792
88,042
Amount
40,511
122,649
54,838
21,493 42,700 124,570
22,943 98,245 38,956 36,220 17,528 249,980 36,830 148,432
88,674 165,664 269,985 51,861
Undisbursed
1,818,093
sistance, SAM =
SF = Japan Special
20

echnical As
ctual
54,489 52,208
74,820
12,500
37,057
80,015 58,139
A
191,351
271,162 203,958
428,507 552,300 215,430
401,755 111,044 113,780 132,472
213,170 671,568
161,326 434,336
4,471,407
Disbursement
95,000 150,000 314,000 75,000
12,500 326,000 292,000
450,000 595,000 340,000
60,000 500,000 150,000 150,000 150,000 250,000 250,000 820,000
250,000 600,000 350,000 110,000
600,000
ederated States of Micronesia, J
Amount
6,889,500
A = project preparatory T
A A A A
A A A
A A A
A A A A A A A A
A A A A
A
T
ype

ADT PPT ADT PPT
ADT ADT ADT
ADT ADT ADT
ADT PPT ADT PPT PPT PPT PPT ADT
ADT PPT PPT ADT
ADT
-95
-00 -98 -97
-98 -00 -01
-03 -04
-05
Closing Date
Dec-87 Sep-92 Dec-88 Jun-89
Dec-92
Jul-04
Mar Jun-94
ug-02
May May May
Apr Apr May Oct-00 A Apr Apr Oct-04
Jan-05
Mar
apua New Guinea, PPT
31-
30-Sep-04 30-Sep-04
G
G N
G
G
N G
N
N G
A
P
N KIR PN A
A
V
KIR RMI
P
N FSM PN
V PN FSM
A
, PNG = P
SAM FSM SOL V SAM
V PN SAM TUV
SAM
Country
COO
anuatu.
echnical
echnical Assistance, COO = Cook Islands, FSM = F
AN = V
rogram ng
r
aini
roject
raining
uvalu, V
raining
A = advisory T
echnical Assistance to PDMCs in the Education Sector since 1984
itle
acific developing member country
’s T
ADB
roject II
P
roject T

o
cational Education P
r
aining
raining of Deputy General Manager
roject
esources Study
ocational Education and T
esources Development
esources Development Study (JSF)
esource Development Study
echnical Assistance Information System.
ramework and Capacity Building for T
ilot P
ocational Education and T
A4.1
ccounting Education Master Plan
Sector Study on Education and T
ccess P
otal
A Technical and V Rationalization and Savings in Higher Education Vocational T Technical Assistance to Development Bank of Kiribati for External T Human R A Institutionalization of Social Impact Analysis in Higher Education Human R Education R Assessment of Effectiveness of Bank Assistance in Capacity Building Skills Development (JSF) Human R Education Sector Basic Social Service Sector Development P Nonformal V Skills Development Education Sector Support Policy F and V Literacy is for Everyone (LIFE) Education Sector P Education Sector Master Plan Supporting the Samoa SchoolNet and Community A
T
T
able
1 2 3 4 5
6 7 8
9 10 11
12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
20 21 22 23
ADB = Asian Development Bank, ADT Fund, KIR = Kiribati, PDMC = P Samoa, SOL = Solomon Islands, TUV = T
Source: ADB T

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Better Learning, Better Future: Education and Training Sector Strategy
ctual
8.00
2.53
4.69
3.95
4.03
0.10
0.15
7.80
A
14.87
46.12
of the Marshall
Disbursed Amount (million)
epublic
million)
8.00
19.90
2.70
20.00
7.00
6.80
8.02
1
.
8
5
8.00
82.27
Amount ($
Date
apua New Guinea, RMI = R
Oct-00
Oct-04
eb-01
31-Dec-88
30-Sep-01
31-
30-Jun-06
31-
30-Jun-05
30-Jun-07
30-Jun-05
28-F
Closing
-93
Date
Apr
Oct-99
Approved
1-
5-Sep-00
26-Nov-81
22-Sep-94
28-
29-Nov-00
20-Dec-00
1
6
-
Oct-02
9-Nov-03
ederated States of Micronesia, PNG = P
O
M
V

PNG
PNG
O
C
PNG
S
A
RMI
F
S
M
T
U
RMI
Country
’s Lending to PDMCs in the Education Sector since 1981
ADB
uvalu.
itle
ocational Education
roject
inancial Information System.
P
roject T

Oriented Skills Development

oan F
raining P
A4.2
raining and V
T
able
T
echnical Education
Higher Education
Education Development
Employment-
Education Sector
Skills T
Basic Social Services
Maritime T
Basic Education Development
T
otal

ADB = Asian Development Bank, COO = Cook Islands, FSM = F
Islands, SAM = Samoa, TUV = T
Source: ADB L
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Future Directions for Pacific Education and Training
f
o

6.6 5.9 5.4 3.8 2.2 1.7 0.8 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.1 4.8
%
T
otal

66.6
100.0
, RMI =

r country
T
otal

715,409 544,980 464,370 422,204 324,535 127,979
60,478,299 6,026,003 5,394,929 4,857,006 3,461,209 2,016,605 1,571,594
4,343,330 90,748,452
c
0.4
Other Education
357,994
357,994
Management
acific developing membe
13.2
T
raining

82,011
59,537 678,566 41,001 883,955
Education
P
olicy and dministrative &

6,864,379
3,341,705
A
11,951,154
5.1
o
n
N

ormal
86,456 58,994
13,947
Education
F
acilities

F
4,442,330
4,601,727
0.4
Skills
12,593
Secondary
379,604
392,197
Development/
b
ederated States of Micronesia, PDMC = P
ost
10.9
, P
310,896
55,865
TVET
5,584,964 2,863,636
1,116,757
Education
9,932,118
31.3
Higher
667,659 570,597 544,980 444,360 422,204 324,535 127,979
Education
11,469,698 1,916,711 1,719,828 2,069,482 1,847,255 1,894,110
4,343,330 28,362,728
ustralia 2004.


4.1
75,000 36,883
75,000
unding for Education by Subsector for Selected PDMCs (2002-2003)
raining, mostly scholarships.
Secondary
Education
2,309,136
3,744,654
’s F
1,163,645 22,500
22,500 19,980 20,010
34.6
usAID
P
rimary

Country
799,456
A
29,070,194
1,536,230
31,405,880
ustralian Agency for International Development, FSM = F
training.
usAID statistical office, Canberra, A
A4.3
egion
a
usAID = A
eacher
T
Includes Multisector Education/T
T
able
PNG Vanuatu Kiribati Fiji Islands Samoa Tonga Tuvalu Solomon Islands FSM Nauru Cook Islands RMI Palau Pacific R Total % Share of
subsector
A
R
epublic of the Marshall Islands, TVET = technical and vocational education and training. a b c Capacity building.
Source: A
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Better Learning, Better Future: Education and Training Sector Strategy
1.4 8.5 1.5 1.8 0.1
4.0 1.8 9.0 2.8
6.9
% of Total
15.2
15.8 19.1
12.1
100.0
vocational
100.0
nal Development,
T
otal

10,801
Amount
223,375
240,410 274,061
628,805 279,755
435,998
2,357,855
1,328,888
2,456,602 2,963,308
1,402,760
1,874,748
1,075,367
15,552,732
ICT
7
.
5

5,977
493,275 48,086 70,535
175,697 185,308
188,363
1,167,240
ormal
2
.
5

Skills
4,091
256,503
26,308
107,112
Non F
394,014
Development/
able 6.
c
7
.
0

, NZAID = New Zealand Agency for Internatio epublic of the Marshall Islands, TVET = technical and
rojects T
TVET
145,179
385,955
20,972
536,905
1,089,010
b
.
60.7
10,801
Higher
361,735 135,827 987,624 240,410 274,061
374,034 279,755 885,623 412,134
247,410
Education
1,435,381 1,920,762
1,870,657
9,436,213
orld Bank Education P
.
8
.
6

apua New Guinea, RMI = R
2,892
866,849 69,463
210,903
183,293
Secondary
1,333,401
, PNG = P
a
647
13.4
125,550
602,981
117,871
P
rimary

1,246,342
2,093,391
unding for Education by Subsector for Selected PDMCs for 2002–2003 in ($)
0
.
3

Early
39,462
ellington, New Zealand, July 2004 and W
39,462
Childhood
acific developing member country
rimary also includes early childhood and ICT is included in TVET
NZAID F
d
egional
ederated States of Micronesia, ICT = information and communication technology
A4.4
-
L
este
otal
f
T

PDMC = P education and training.
ost secondary education.
Countries
G
o
Education forum and policy support included in primary sector
FSM = F
Also includes scholarships. Capacity Building/Strengthening projects/support for education ministries included here. P Cook Island P
Source: NZAID office, W
T
able
Cook Islands Fiji Islands Kiribati RMI FSM Palau PN Samoa Solomon Islands Timor Tonga Tuvalu Vanuatu
P
acific R Programme

T
otal

%
a
b
c
d
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Future Directions for Pacific Education and Training
-82
Date


30-Jun-02
30-Nov-05
31-Mar
Closing
Date

Oct-01


Oct-76
31-Dec-87
31-Dec-88
31-Dec-01


31-Dec-89
31-Dec-92
31-Dec-01




21-Jun-00
29-
19-
acific
Effective












otal for
2
5

5
0

2
5

Country
100
% of T Each










Subtotal
27,800,000
54,400,000
26,900,000




109,495,976
orld Bank’s Support for Education in the P
W

Amount
395,976
($ million)
13,900,000
13,900,000
4,000,000
9,400,000
6,000,000
35,000,000
5,000,000
5,000,000
16,900,000
ustralia 2004.
, A
roject
roject
II
Education
orld Bank office, Sydney
Country
A4.5
-Leste
rimary
Emergency School
R
eadiness P
F
undamental School
Quality P
Education I
P
Secondary Education
Education Development
P
rimary
Education
Education III
Education
T
able
T
imor


P
apua New Guinea


Solomon Islands

Samoa
T
otal

Source: W
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Better Learning, Better Future: Education and Training Sector Strategy
Table A4.6
European Union’s Funding in the Education Sector in the Pacific
($ million)
National Programs
Years
Total Amount
Cook Islands
2003-2006
1.00a
Fiji Islands
2004-2008
23.00a
Kiribati (TVET)
2002-2006
7.00
Marshall Islands
2005-2007
0.85a
Papua New Guinea

Samoa
0
Solomon Islands

Timor-Leste

Tonga
2004-2008
1.50a
Tuvalu
2003-2007
2.50a
Vanuatu

Total Country
34.85
Regional Programs
PRIDE
2003-2008
9.00
US-HRD
2002-2007
5.50
Total Regional
14.50
Grand Total
50.35
— = data not available.
PRIDE = Pacific Regional Initiatives for the Delivery of Basic Education, TVET = technical and
vocational education and training, US-HRD = United States Human Resource Development.
a
Covers all sub-sectors, except university, and refer mainly to education infrastructure, equipment
and learning materials.
Source: European Union office, Fiji Islands 2004.
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Future Directions for Pacific Education and Training
T
otal

31,739
449,554
481,293
2004
5,000
223,539
228,539
egional
rograms
R Programs
2003
18,751
135,538
154,289
egional P
2004
3,415
21,465
24,880

V
anuatu

2003
4,573
4,573
2004
57,883
57,883
Islands
acific Countries, and R
Countries
Solomon
(in $)
2003
10,129
10,129
2004
1,000
1,000
Kiribati

2003
ugust 2004.

und.
unding for the Selected P
2004
’s F
’s F
iji Islands, A
F
iji Islands

roject.
2003
5,000
5,000
UNICEF
riendly Schools P
a
A4.7
Child F
UNICEF = United Nations Children
— = data not available. a
Source: UNICEF office, Suva, F
T
able
Education Sector/ Subsector
Y
ear

Early Childhood
P
rimary
T
otal

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Better Learning, Better Future: Education and Training Sector Strategy
Appendix 5 Proposed ADB Education and Training
Sector Activities, 2005-2007
2005
2006
2007
Regional Technical Strategies for skills
Implementation of Pacific
Assistance
development in the Pacific
Education Strategy
(possibly implement with
($100,000)
PRIDE) for $800,000
1. Expenditure reviews and
financial sustainability
analyses in at least three
PDMCs
2. Develop empirical evidence
on prevalence and sources of
low education performance of
disadvantaged groups in Cook
Islands, RMI, Samoa,
Solomon Islands, and Tuvalu
Collaborates with other
Possible technical
Cook Islands
donors to follow up on ADB
assistance for sector
basic education project in
analysis and follow up
Cook Islands
project
Kiribati
Technical assistance for
Skills Development
Program
Marshall Islands
On going TA 4458-RMI:
Technical assistance for
Increasing Ownership and
sector analysis and support
Effective Demand
for Improved Education
Micronesia,
38201-01 Education and
Federated States
Health Sector Strategy
of
Papua New
Participate actively with
Explore cofinancing
Guinea
AusAID and the World Bank
possibilities with AusAID
in joint HD Sector Strategy
for LIFE Project.
for Education
Samoa
1. SWAp based education
Innovative program in
sector project approved
SchoolNet Pilot Project
2. Policy and Strategic Plan
completed.
completed
Solomon Islands
Technical assistance for
sector analysis and support
Tonga
Explore possible involvement
in SWAp, especially in Skills
Development area.
Tuvalu
Initiate SWAp based
education program support
with the implementation of
TA for Education Reform and
Development Project
Vanuatu
38609-01 Rural Productive 38570-01Technical and
Skills Development
Vocation Education Training
($300,000)
(Total $200,000)
AusAID = Australian Agency for International Development, HD = human development, JFPR = Japan Fund for
Poverty Reduction, LIFE = literacy is for everybody, PDMC = Pacific developing member country, PRIDE = Pacific
Regional Initiatives for the Delivery of Basic Education, RETA = regional technical assistance, RMI = Republic of the
Marshall Islands, SWAp = sector wide approach, TA = technical assistance.
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Future Directions for Pacific Education and Training
Appendix 6 Sector–Wide Approaches
The central objective of the sector–wide approach (SWAp) is the
development and implementation of a comprehensive sector
development program that is sustainable and supported by all major
stakeholders. In most instances, the first task to be tackled in a SWAp
is the joint effort of all partners to review the key issues of access,
equity, quality, efficiency, relevance, and management capacity facing
the sector. Sources of financing (including public, private, and
external) need to be identified as part of this process. On this basis, a
long-term (usually 10 years) strategic plan is developed to provide a
framework for the detailed programming of investments and
expenditure requirements over an initial 3–5 year period. In many
countries, the education and training sector plan are closely linked to
the national development plan, poverty reduction strategy, and
medium-term expenditure framework to ensure that investment in
education and training effectively support national development
priorities and have an explicitly agreed claim on public resources.
An important element in the process is analysis and dialogue on
the affordability and sustainability of specific investments and
policies. The longer-term resource implications of some policies and
investments (often externally financed) may exceed the resources
projected to be available and may jeopardize their sustainability. In
several countries, an education sector financial projection model has
been developed to assess the longer-term financial feasibility of
proposed policies and investments. This has often helped to focus the
policy dialogue and has stimulated the search for alternative more
cost-effective solutions.
Education reform, especially as it concerns issues of teaching,
learning, and resource allocation, cannot be implemented by the
mandate of central authorities. Local ownership is of the essence.
Reforms not supported by teachers and parents have failed almost
invariably. A central feature of successful education reform is the
effectiveness of the processes for stakeholder involvement and
ownership. Where governments have taken a proactive role in
involving teachers, head teachers, parents, and communities in
identifying issues and needs in education and training, change has
often occurred. Many SWAps support broad consultative and
participatory processes.
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Better Learning, Better Future: Education and Training Sector Strategy
The effectiveness of SWAps is strongly determined by the quality
of monitoring and progress reporting systems. The shift toward
results-based program management can only happen when baseline
data and trends in key performance indicators are regularly collected,
analyzed, and used for policy review and adjustment purposes. In
several countries, the absence of effective implementation,
monitoring, and progress reporting is jeopardizing the effectiveness
of the SWAp strategy.
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Future Directions for Pacific Education and Training
Appendix 7 The Association for the Development of
Education in Africa (ADEA)
ADEA is a network and a partnership. This means that ADEA is
neither a funding agency nor a traditional organization or investment
project.
ADEA is a network of:

Development Agencies

Education specialists and researchers

Nongovernment organizations active in education

African Ministries of Education
ADEA’s mission is to:

Promote dialogue and partnerships

Develop consensus on policy issues facing education in Africa

Reinforce African Ministries’ capacities to develop, manage,
and implement education policies

Promote the sharing of experiences and successful strategies

Promote nationally-driven education policies, projects, and
programs
History
ADEA was established at the initiative of the World Bank in 1988.
Then called “Donors to African Education” (DAE), its objective was to
foster collaboration and coordination between development agencies
in support of education in Africa.
ADEA now focuses on developing partnerships between
Ministers of Education and funding agencies in order to promote
effective education policies based on African leadership and
ownership.
Steering Committee
The ADEA Steering Committee is ADEA’s governing body and
primary instance for the coordination among funding agencies and
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Better Learning, Better Future: Education and Training Sector Strategy
African ministries of education. The Steering Committee is composed
of 10 African ministers of education, chosen by their peers, and
funding agencies (currently 20). Its deliberations are best
characterized by their professionalism and informality.
Caucus and Bureau of African Ministers
The Caucus and Bureau of African Ministers of Education are
central to ADEA’s efforts to strengthen policy dialogue. The Caucus,
composed of all the ministers of education in Africa, and the Bureau,
composed of 10 ministers elected by their peers to serve on ADEA’s
Steering Committee, have been instrumental in moving ADEA away
from being a traditional “donors’ club.”
Working Groups
Led and coordinated by African stakeholders and funding
agencies, ADEA’s 11 Working Groups are engaged in three types of
activities: advocacy work, analytical work, and capacity-building.
Source: http://www.adeanet.org/about/en_aboutADEA.html
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Document Outline

  • Acknowledgments
  • Foreword
  • Executive Summary
  • Introduction
  • Regional Context - Economic Performance and Challenges
  • Achievements and Challenges in Education and Training
  • External Assistance to Education
  • Future Directions for Pacific Education and Training
  • Conclusion
  • Appendixes
  • References


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